European Geographical Discoveries in Africa and Their Contemporary Impacts

One is truly astonished when observing the relatively small population of Europe in the second half of the 19th century, juxtaposed with their remarkable ability to colonize numerous countries and peoples. For instance, the small landmass and population of Britain managed to seize almost half of the world, exploiting the resources of its inhabitants for its own benefit!

It is equally astonishing to witness European travelers and explorers beginning most of their exploratory journeys through regions ruled by Arabs in North and East Africa, while ignoring the West African coast, which they had dominated since the 15th century. One might wonder what led them to overlook the western coast in favor of the northern and eastern coasts?

Undoubtedly, European colonizers were armed with something different from the rest of the world’s peoples and countries. What was this distinguishing factor? Who created this significant difference between them and others? What enabled the Europeans to acquire Africa with such ease and at such little cost?

To answer these important questions, our paper titled “European Geographical Discoveries in Africa and Their Contemporary Impacts” aims to identify this unique and distinguishing factor between both parties.

First: European Discoveries in Africa in the 19th Century

It is certain that the story of European geographical discoveries in Africa did not begin in the 19th century, but rather at the end of the 15th century. When Europe was in great need of spices and condiments from India, it relied on the route through the Red Sea, then the Mediterranean Sea to Europe. However, when Europeans thought of finding another route to the East to end the Arab monopoly on that trade, they began maritime explorations around Africa, managing to reach the Gold Coast (Ghana) and then the Congo River estuary.

Bartholomew Dias succeeded in reaching the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, followed by Vasco da Gama, who navigated around the Cape of Good Hope and reached the coasts of the Indian subcontinent in 1498. From that time until the beginning of the 19th century, European presence remained confined to the African coasts only.

A deep reflection on the reports and writings of travelers reveals much that has eluded our reading until now. If we arrange the historical writings left by European travelers regarding their journeys and review the evolution of their content, we will notice that European knowledge about the inner African continent, specifically the areas beyond the Sahara, was initially shallow, not significantly exceeding ancient information. We will understand that European maps of Africa were filled with white spaces, indicating a lack of available information.

The Role of European Geographical Societies in Exploring Africa:

We can assert that the grand phase of exploring the interiors of Africa did not begin until the establishment of the Geographic Society in London in 1788. This led European missions to venture into Africa to discover its rivers and resources. In this context, geographical societies played a crucial role in uncovering rivers and the mysteries of the interior continent, conducting significant evaluations of mineral and agricultural wealth.

The efforts of explorers in the Nile and Niger rivers alone highlight the role they played. Their journeys through Southern and Central Africa, and their tracking of the Zambezi River from 1853 to 1856, as well as the upper Congo River in 1871, are among the most notable contributions in providing economic information about those regions. This information opened up opportunities for European businessmen and companies to trade with Africa.

One of the key factors that facilitated the achievement of these goals was the establishment of numerous exploratory societies, beginning with the Geographical Society in Paris in 1821, followed by the Berlin Society in 1828, then the Royal Geographical Society in London in 1830. The number of European societies eventually reached around 100, comprising almost 50,000 members. The term “Scramble for Africa” encapsulated the Europeans’ expressed interest in exploring unknown Africa, leading to the establishment of objectives for these explorations, allowing them to strengthen their influence and access the desired resources of Africa.

The reports by European explorers during their explorations of African rivers and related regions, submitted to European decision-makers, were filled with discussions on the continent’s wealth and prosperity, outright calling upon European governments and traders to act in order to seize Africa’s riches. Examples include:

Discoveries of the Nile River:

• The exploration of the Nile began with Scottish traveler James Bruce’s arrival in Ethiopia in 1769, publishing the news of his journey in six volumes supported by maps, providing a complete description of Lake Tana and its islands.
• German travelers John Krappen (1843) and Ryman (1848), followed by British explorers Burton and Speke (1856-1859) and then Speke and Grant (1861-1863) played significant roles in facilitating economic information for their compatriots.

Discoveries of the Zambezi River:

• The name associated with its discovery is David Livingstone, who uncovered some details during his first expedition (1841-1858), completing the rest during his second trip (1859-1864). The importance and potential dangers of his discoveries stem from their opening the door for British missionary missions.

Discoveries of the Niger River:

• Between 1852 and 1854, Heinrich Barth succeeded in exploring the Niger’s interior regions. England continued its efforts to discover the areas surrounding the river, sending a mission in 1857 to connect with the Islamic kingdoms located north of Sokoto to strengthen relations in preparation for control over them.

Discoveries of the Senegal and Gambia Rivers:

• Explorer Richard Jobson ventured over four hundred miles up the Gambia River in 1620, providing significant descriptions of the lives of its inhabitants in agriculture and hunting.
• French explorers played a large role in these discoveries, particularly in West and Central Africa. Notable names like George Schweinfurth, Gustav Nachtigal, and Paul du Chaillu in West Africa and Gabon highlight the role these figures played in providing information to the French authorities in preparation for invading these areas.

Discoveries of the Orange River and Southern Africa:

• The information gathered by the Dutch and English travelers regarding the fertility of the lands in Southern Africa incited resentment among Europeans in the Cape towards local populations for their prosperity, thus invading became the only means for Europeans to seize these lands. The writings of English and Dutch travelers have been a driving force in this scramble towards the north and east of the Cape, indicating that information about the economy of the northern and western regions was available in the writings of these travelers. The Great Trek undertaken by the Boers in the 1830s was not towards unknown areas, contrary to what they claimed.

Second: The Impact of Geographical Discoveries on the Colonization of Africa:

The industrial revolution in Britain at the beginning of the 19th century had a significant influence on unprecedented interest in Africa, primarily as a source of raw materials and a market for products. Thus, they dispatched travelers and explorers to Africa to document everything they observed regarding political, economic, and social systems. The pace of European information regarding Africa increased steadily as a result of these successive exploratory journeys.

Understanding that the British Colonial Office was the main beneficiary of their reports clarifies the philosophy behind the funding of these missions. If we also recognize that these explorers’ stays in Africa weren’t short or rapid, with some spending several years there, we grasp the extent of interest from the hidden powers that provided them with care and resources.

The geographical expeditions were part of the interest of great powers, particularly British ones, and European geographical societies towards Africa, facilitating lawful trade; they worked to unveil internal trade mechanisms, the most significant goods being traded, and the extent to which Africa could become a realm for export. They offered proposals to African leaders to trade with Britain, as Clayton, Dunham, and Odney did with Sheikh Muhammad Amin of Kanem, and as they did with the rulers of Sokoto in northern Nigeria, and as Clayton did in his second expedition when he offered a friendship treaty to Sultan Muhammad Bello of Sokoto to secure the path for the delivery of goods until they reached the Atlantic Ocean.

Moreover, the role played by consuls and members of European communities in penetrating Africa from the north was significant.

Efforts of Travelers in Constructing the Information Superiority Over Africans:

European travelers were characterized by their documentation and recording of their observations and the narratives they heard. Journals were a part of the travelers’ programs, establishing in the second half of the 19th century a European information database regarding Africa, continually renewing it every few years, with sometimes no more than three years between journeys.

The discussions held at geographical societies and the European press’s presentation of exploratory information sent by travelers in their reports played a significant role in attracting European governments and traders, convincing them of the necessity to dominate Africa.

The roles of European travelers and explorers varied; they included doctors, missionaries, naturalists, geographers, etc. This diversity reflected in the compilation of information and the tasks they undertook is what enabled the exploration phase to transform into a political exploration phase, as seen through Stanley’s journey to Central Africa in 1873; he then worked for the Belgian King Leopold in the Congo, where many German and Belgian traders traveled to explore its riches, leading to the establishment of the “Congo State,” transitioning trade from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean and transferring it from Arab hands to Belgian ones.

Stanley’s return in 1877 from his famous tropical journey and the announcement of his discoveries in the upper Congo had a profound impact on the African continent, as the competition between France and Belgium over Congo attracted the attention of other European states towards Africa. German Chancellor Bismarck sought to convene a conference in Berlin to resolve the Congo issue, which took place from November 15, 1884, to February 26, 1885, attended by fourteen nations.

Reports from travelers carried news of conflicts between states and African groups during the 19th century, such as the Mandingo against the Tukulor, Ashanti against Fantis, Baganda against Bunyoro, and Mashona against Ndebeli. It was only natural that Europeans exploited these conflicts to easily control these nations, which led to African groups aligning themselves with Europeans against each other! For example, the Baganda allied with the British against Bunyoro, the Barotse aligned with the British against Ndebeli, and the Bambara allied with the French against the Tukulor, which facilitated the division of Africa among European powers and its occupation by 1900.

It is certain that missionary societies and missionaries followed closely in the footsteps of explorers, playing a vital role in paving the way for colonialism in Africa, as they studied the customs, languages, and traditions of Africans, and wrote about them in the European press, urging their nations to come to Africa.

Taking the establishment of the “African Lakes Company” in the Nyasaland region as an example, we find that it was founded as a result of information recorded by Livingstone about Lake Nyasaland from 1859 to 1863, for he received instructions from the British Foreign Office to introduce legitimate commerce in the interior and gather information regarding regional trade and tribes. He noted in his reports the potential for agricultural expansion at the Shire River Highlands and stated that Indians and commercial steamboats could navigate the lake.

Thus, a missionary mission was sent in 1861 for implementation, but it failed, followed by a second missionary mission in 1875, resulting in the establishment of the “Livingstonia Company of Central Africa” in 1877, named in honor of Livingstone, with the aim of supplying missionaries and settlers with their needs, importing fabrics and beads, and selling them to Africans in exchange for ivory and inland products.

Efforts of Travelers in Economic Service to Europe:

The efforts of European travelers for their states included:

• Providing information about vital raw materials needed for the industrial revolution.
• Revealing internal trade mechanisms and significant commodities, and determining the feasibility of Africa as a field for export.
• Clarifying ways to encourage producers and creating a nucleus of a middle class to be agents for commercial companies.
• Highlighting resistance to monopoly policies.
• Surveying and mapping the area before considering potential trade.
• Presenting trade proposals to African rulers with Britain.
• Their information served as preambles for European commercial companies to enter and send commercial missions.

Efforts of Travelers in Political Service to Colonialism:

The Berlin Conference (1884-1885), as it stands, was the first colonial conference held among the European powers concerned with colonialism, recognized the existing situation in Africa, organized what remained of the continent’s territories, organized commerce in the Congo Basin, proclaimed freedom of navigation on the Niger, and established general principles to prevent clashes between colonial powers.

However, this European agreement occurred based on the information provided by geographical discoveries about the divided regions. Who informed the Europeans of local African leaders’ illiteracy? They exploited this ignorance to obtain signatures on treaties and agreements placing their countries under colonial protection without realizing what they were doing. Undoubtedly, it was the travelers and explorers who provided the information regarding this matter. Following the conference, each nation sent its merchants, partners, and spies to traverse Africa, seeking signatures or imprints from African leaders on treaties of protection during the fifteen years following the conference, resulting in the division of Africa among European powers, the drawing of borders, and the establishment of political divisions between one white ruler and another.

The geographical explorations did not continue long after the Berlin Conference, as there needed to be an European force to exploit African resources. Africa became colonized by France, Britain, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Portugal. Up until 1879, Africans governed 90% of the continent; by 1900, this situation had completely changed!

Certain European elements settled in parts of Africa, particularly those resembling Europe in geographical characteristics, such as the Cape area, Mozambique, Kenya, Southern and Northern Rhodesia, and the Moroccan islands. Many African resources were exploited by Europeans, as British and French industries relied on African raw materials, alongside the introduction of extensive scientific agriculture and modern mining techniques.

From the above, I believe that the writings of travelers formed an essential knowledge dimension that presented Africa to Europe on a silver platter, which allowed them to easily dominate it. Thus, the knowledge held by the Europeans, thanks to the travelers, became a mighty power seeking to exert its influence.

If Africans lacked the knowledge in the 19th century to resist Europeans, they also lacked the sufficient strength to repel the colonizers. Despite the treaties and agreements obtained by Europeans from Africans at the moment of colonization, no European military force existed on the ground to protect them. Yet, the information network provided by travelers and explorers generated and solidified that power in the minds of Africans.

Third: Reasons for European Explorers’ Departures from the Eastern and Northern African Sides:

European consuls and traders residing in port cities realized that Arabs were undoubtedly the primary information reservoir for Central and Eastern and Western Africa, which led them to guide European travelers to benefit from this extensive expertise. They requested them to join caravans in most of the journeys they undertook, making a significant portion of their information derived from the knowledge of those who accompanied them. The records of the Royal Geographical Society overflow with important information regarding the Arab role in uncovering the central continent, corroborated by the American Geographical Society’s records elucidating this role, suggesting that the discoveries were not goals in themselves, but rather tools to uncover the mystery surrounding the Arab trade mechanism in the interior.

Arab traders coming from Zanzibar, East African coasts, Mediterranean ports, or oases spread across the Sahara Desert were familiar with the interior regions, their paths, and the peoples, tribes, and resources they contained. Many spoke their languages, and wealthy traders among them had agents in major market cities and maintained direct connections with their rulers.

Thus, we can say that the travelers’ choice of northern and eastern regions to launch from towards the African interior was not arbitrary. Practical experience and the ongoing discussions of travelers regarding the Arab role confirm that Arabs were the sole source of information regarding the unexplored regions in southern and eastern Africa. They provided letters of safety and recommendations, and through economic and political hegemony, they controlled the entrance and exit of foreigners to and from East and Central Africa.

The accounts of the information Europeans obtained from Arabs summarize the rest of the aspects. When Burton and Speke reached Eastern Africa, they received letters from the Sultan of Zanzibar to the interior Arabs, which significantly influenced their welcome in Tabora (600 miles from the coast). There, they received information about the existence of three lakes and were guided through paths and trails. The lakes were referred to by Arabs as seas or oceans, and without assistance from the Ougiegi Arabs in February 1858, they would not have been able to navigate Lake Tanganyika in Arab boats. Additionally, the information they received from the Arabs in Unyanembe encouraged Speke to continue his journey northward to Lake Victoria after Burton fell ill. This underscores that Arabs were indeed the single source of such information.

The significant role Arabs played in providing information to all travelers is evidenced by their guidance to Livingstone in every area he visited. British parliamentary records indicate an agreement between Britain and the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1863 regarding Arabs providing services and assistance to travelers in Africa. They also confirm that Britain possessed no political influence in the interior, as shown by Lord Derby’s letter to Explorer Stanley in 1875 informing him that no British flag authority could protect him from local tribes’ attacks around Lake Victoria except for the authority of the Arabs, highlighting the Arabs’ critical role in protecting these travelers.

Fourth: The Impact of Discoveries on Arab-African Relations:

Initially, European travelers concealed their missionary intentions. However, once they gained strength, they began to incite African elements against Islam and Arab identity, as witnessed in Uganda, South Sudan, Nigeria, and Kenya.

The arrival of European colonialism, facilitated by geographical discoveries, severed the bridges of communication between Arabs and Africans. For instance, in North Africa, we can observe the impact of these travelers on Arab-African relations through the English mission’s exploration of Lake Chad and its surroundings (1822-1824). The story of these travelers began when Warrington (the British consul in Tripoli) intervened with Pasha Yusuf Al-Qaramani to facilitate the journey of the English travelers to areas surrounding Lake Chad, ruled by Sheikh Muhammad Kanemi. An exploratory expedition was organized, led by Lieutenant Clapperton, Dr. O’Donnell from the Navy, and Dunham in March 1822. The grand reception from Sheikh Kanemi was not merely a reflection of his acknowledgment of the Pasha’s endorsement, but also indicated a desire to strengthen his ties with these newcomers.

Despite the generous welcome received from the Sheikh and the Pasha, the travelers played the game of division between the two men, seeking to connect the Sheikh to them while distancing him from the Pasha. Between 1823 and 1824, Major Dunham sought to establish trade relations between Bornu and England. However, Sheikh Kanemi expressed reservations against any foreign influence in his land, fearing the economic infiltration of foreign companies leading to political encroachment from England. His letters to the King of England in August 1824, requesting defenders, weapons, gunpowder, etc., reflected his concerns regarding retaliation from the Pasha of Tripoli for solidifying ties with the English. Moreover, the gifts the Sheikh sent to King George IV and the British consul in Tripoli on August 11, 1823, without sending anything to the Pasha, indicated his rapid grasp of international power balances, suggesting the end of Tripolitan influence in Bornu.

The same applies to the letter from Muhammad Bello, the ruler of Sokoto in Northern Nigeria, to King George IV, echoing the same tone previously used by Sheikh Kanemi, focusing on utilizing Atlantic Ocean ports for trade between the two countries.

In this manner, not only were Arab-African relations struck, but these practices also represented a precursor to shifting trade from the Arab North to the Atlantic Ocean.

As for the Eastern and Central African areas, we know that the process of European explorations of the three great rivers across the Great African Lakes region occurred between 1857 and 1876. During this time, Arabs controlled almost all economic, political, social, and cultural structures within those areas. Just as in the north, where relations between Arabs and Africans were disrupted, similar occurrences also transpired in Eastern and Central Africa.

In understanding the African reality regarding the disruption of relations between Arabs and Africans, European travelers and explorers presented a comprehensive image of the beginnings and extensions of Arab rule in the Upper Congo. Livingstone discussed the source of Arab wealth in 1868, and traveler Cameron in 1873 recounted the control of Arab traders over copper in Katanga. They referenced Livingstone’s letters to Robert Moffat from 1853 to 1855 and mentioned their encounters with Arab traders in the land of the Matabele, asserting that they traded with the Portuguese and locals and were subject to the Imam of Muscat, along with Arabic texts indicating Arab encroachment in the southwest of Lake Nyasaland, and mentioned Arab traders being proficient in Portuguese.

On the other hand, focusing on disrupting Arab-African relations, some explorers emphasized the role of Arabs in the slave trade. This focus was a predominant feature of their discourse, often overlooking the role of Europeans in the Atlantic slave trade, which significantly fueled hostility against Arabs to this day, undermining the historical relationship between both parties. Therefore, the writings and works of travelers necessitate an understanding of the contexts in which they were written and the underlying motivations to refute their claims.

While the Ugandan tradition of imitating Arabs in their attire and customs, Stanley’s remarks in 1887 about the strength of Arab camps and villages, his astonishment at how they controlled the area west of Lake Tanganyika, and his admiration for their trade and dealings with the northern region illustrate, there’s a stark contrast with the dramatic downfall they faced in that region. The actions of European travelers to instigate discord between Arabs and Africans ignited conflict between the Ounyanembe Arabs and Africans in 1872, preventing Congolese Arabs from crossing the area to reach the eastern coast, as this war continued to escalate between the two parties due to British involvement from 1871 to 1875.

Moreover, the role played by travelers in dividing Arabs from the Wanjwana African class established by Arabs themselves in areas they controlled in East and Central Africa should not be overlooked. Upon the arrival of European colonizers, they approached this class and incited division and animosity between them and Arabs, resulting in their alignment with the European colonizers and a resulting break with the Arabs, ultimately leading to Arabs abandoning most areas they controlled in the interior and returning to the coast.

Fifth: The Effects of Geographical Discoveries on Contemporary African Life:

Not all effects of the discoveries were negative, as several positive impacts followed:

• Changing the nature of some African communities, influenced by European civilizational patterns, as in Nigeria and Congo-Brazzaville.
• Africa benefited from European medical technologies in treating some diseases.
• The entry of railway systems and the development of transportation networks served European interests even today, as many African airlines remain more connected to Europe than to regional African airlines.

However, the negative impacts of European geographical discoveries concentrated on:

• The Atlantic coast, unsuitable for European settlement, became dominated by European companies through trade stations as recommended by travelers, while Europeans in North Africa relied on their communities. Thanks to the relationship between these communities and the travelers, trade routes shifted from the Sahara to the Atlantic Ocean.
• The expansion and colonial control processes only paused after the majority of Africa had been conquered, leading to its division into minuscule entities among colonial powers. The continent continues to live under this division today, representing the highest number of political units within a single continent globally. Consequently, African entities have entered into continuous conflict following independence, resulting in devastating wars stemming from a division that disregarded the distributions of races, religions, tribes, and economic needs.
• The presence of some European colonial elements remains unchanged in parts of Africa today.
• The continuation of indirect economic control over the continent.
• Following the departure of European colonizers, Africa was compelled to uphold the sanctity of existing borders, a principle enshrined by the Organization of African Unity upon its establishment in 1963, to avoid fragmenting Africa into hundreds of units and countries.
• African countries were preoccupied until the 1990s with providing assistance to African nations that had yet to achieve independence.
• African organizations persistently demand the return of the archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean to African embrace, which has remained under Spanish ownership since the 15th century.
• The Organization of African Unity continues to advocate for the restoration of the twenty-four islands surrounding Africa from European colonial powers.
• The ongoing division of African states between Francophone and Anglophone nations has hindered all proposals for African unity, preventing their completion.

Conclusions:

• Knowledge is power, and those who possess power can control and penetrate. Hence, European travelers’ writings about Africa created significant knowledge disparities that have enabled European forces to maintain dominance up to today.
• The negative outcomes of the discoveries vastly outnumbered their positive results.
• The roots of underdevelopment in Africa trace back significantly to the colonial era, with the information network provided by travelers establishing the foundation that consistently entrenched these backwardness conditions.
• European nations continue to control the agenda of Arab-African relations to this day.

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