Colonial powers (primarily Britain, France, Belgium, and Germany) portrayed their goal as the dissemination of civilization and progress to “underdeveloped” regions of the world, including Africa. However, evidence and facts demonstrated the opposite; the economic factor emerged as the main driving force, draining Africa’s natural resources and channeling them to serve the European economy. This was the true reason for the continent’s underdevelopment in various aspects. Europeans proclaimed that “the white mind and the black muscle must collaborate for the good of both parties.”
Following this, Belgian colonialism in Africa adopted the same idea. Its inception was marked by the establishment of a company by King Leopold II of Belgium, with a capital of one million francs, intended to exploit the Congo as his personal property. Eventually, it became a Belgian government colony until it gained independence in 1960.
In light of the above, the issue can be formulated as follows: What is the truth behind Belgian colonialism and its motives in Africa? In an attempt to answer the previous issue, the topic will be addressed through the following main claims:
Belgian Colonialism in Africa – Its Motivations and Development:
The Belgian model in Africa held a unique position in the European competition for colonies, attributed to King Leopold II’s efforts in laying the essential Belgian foundations for the Congo, alongside the desire for ownership and competition with European states over African resources.
King Leopold’s Activities Related to Africa:
In 1876, King Leopold invited geographers and those interested in African studies to an international conference in Brussels, dubbed the “World Geographical Conference.” The conference aimed to explore means for revealing the regions in the heart of Africa, claiming to bring civilization there and seeking to put an end to the widely spread slave trade at the time to pave the way for resource investment.
The conference resulted in the formation of what was called the “International Association for the Exploration and Civilizing of Africa.” It was decided to establish a local branch in each participating country, with Belgium initiating the formation of the “Belgian branch of the Association” in November 1876. This branch began its activities by sending several missions to seize points in Africa and establish stations in its name.
Belgian interest in the Congo was particularly high because it was the largest and richest free African state, with a population of nearly 14 million. It became one of the most significant areas in sub-Saharan Africa due to extensive mineral discoveries, with global production shares as follows: 75% for industrial diamonds, 69% for cobalt, 15% for natural diamonds, 9% for platinum, 8% for copper, 5% for manganese, 3% for zinc, and 2% for gold. The most valuable metals were copper and zinc, which found a lucrative market in the United States, Germany, and Canada.
: The Role of Explorer Stanley in Africa:
King Leopold enlisted the help of famed adventurer Henry Morton Stanley, who had previously conducted a famous exploratory journey between 1873 and 1877. Leopold proposed that Stanley assist him with his Congo project, leading to another international conference in Brussels on November 25, 1878, attended by representatives from France, the Netherlands, and Stanley.
The conference concluded with the formation of the “Supreme Congo Study Committee” to negotiate treaties with local leaders in Congo, later renamed the “International Association of the Congo,” which was independent of the “Association for the Exploration of Africa.” The specific objectives of the International Association differed from those of the Exploration Association, emphasizing direct contact with tribal leaders in the area to establish frameworks for exploiting its resources. The International Association of the Congo thus exhibited a more comprehensive approach compared to the Exploration Association.
During this period, numerous circumstances forced King Leopold II to personally fund the International Association of the Congo with forty thousand pounds at the time.
On another note, the efforts of the Congo Association represented the beginning of Belgian colonialism, marking a crucial step for Leopold II’s personal ambitions as he became the head of this association, thus imprinting it with a purely Belgian character.
The association tasked Stanley with an exploratory trip to find routes to the Congo in 1878, which allowed him to expand eastward at the expense of the dominant Arab traders in the region. He reached the Congo in August 1879 and established the first station there in 1880, followed by the successful establishment of twenty-two commercial stations on the Congo River and its tributaries. Additionally, he signed several agreements with tribal leaders and founded towns there, such as Veve, which was the first capital of the region. His success culminated in a deep invasion along the Congo River, founding a new city called Leopoldville, followed by the second city in another region named Stanleyville in honor of the explorer, instilling a sense of reassurance among local tribal leaders that this was merely a commercial endeavor.
However, after Stanley’s success, King Leopold II was quick to reveal the true purposes of the association by stripping it of its international status to turn it into a purely economic royal Belgian project. When it became apparent that the Katanga region was rich in copper, Leopold rushed to negotiate agreements with tribal leaders in that region to obtain concessions. Thus, the state of the Congo was established, encompassing diverse groups.
The Berlin Conference and the Affirmation of Belgian Colonialism in the Congo:
Some European states, such as Britain and Portugal, opposed Belgium’s projects in the Congo. Amid the colonial scramble for Africa, German leader Bismarck called for a conference of European countries in Berlin to resolve their problems regarding Africa, held from November 15, 1884, to February 30, 1885, to organize the control of the African continent. This conference marked the culmination of the European international struggle over Africa and was a product of European diplomacy’s competition for domination over the continent.
At this conference, King Leopold II successfully garnered a new international ally, the United States, which recognized the international association and its properties in the Congo. In exchange, Leopold promised to keep the Congo open for American trade. From that date, American interests in the region began to grow, and Leopold sought support from other European nations to recognize the association’s rights.
The Congo Under the Burden of Belgian Colonialism: Nature of Colonialism and Stages of Its Development:
Management of the International Association of the Congo:
The final statement of the Berlin Conference established that the Congo would be an independent sovereign African state, administered by the International Association of the Congo led by King Leopold. It had its unique flag, a blue piece of cloth with a golden star in the middle. The Belgian parliament later legally recognized this status in April 1885 but expressed reservations about the nature of the relationship with the Congo, considering it part of the king’s personal possessions.
Accordingly, King Leopold of Belgium continued to invest Congo’s resources for his private benefit for over twenty years through the establishment of a massive economic project that implemented his commercial and industrial aspirations. In 1886, he founded the Congo Company to exploit mineral wealth, thus creating what became a solely Belgian enterprise deep in Africa and a foundation for other monopolistic projects.
Moreover, a secret decree was issued in 1891 that granted the government the right to monopolize ivory and rubber across all vacant lands under the law of 1885. A circular explained this decree by commissioning the company’s employees to oversee the collection of rubber and compel locals to sell what they obtained to the company.
In light of these oppressive policies, voices rose against the Congo government, especially as the Congo Company was not deterred from committing all forms of cruelty against locals and perpetrating horrific crimes and violations of international law in the Congo through the representatives of the king.
Based on the aforementioned laws, anyone found with any quantity of rubber or ivory was deemed a thief and subjected to the harshest punishments. Police officers were tasked with monitoring workers compelled to gather rubber and ivory, setting a specific quota for each worker to meet daily; failure to do so for any reason resulted in extreme punishment. Shooting and amputation were routinely practiced against citizens, and terrorism was employed to coerce tribal leaders in the Congo to provide the necessary workforce and execute orders. Failure to generate acceptable profits for the capital exploited by the Belgian royal court in the Congo meant more cruelty, brutality, and forced labor.
The authorities of the Congo state concealed the truth from many foreign figures and missions, allowing them only to visit specific places in the Congo where they could witness manifestations of European civilization, such as buildings, schools, hospitals, etc., providing an inaccurate portrayal of the conditions in the Congo.
This situation persisted until the reality of what was happening was unveiled, as the issue was raised in the British House of Commons in 1903 following a report written by the British consul about the events in the Congo. It demanded intervention to halt these activities that contradicted the resolutions of the Berlin Conference. The matter was also raised in the Belgian parliament, leading the king to issue a decree in October 1904 to establish a committee of inquiry, which drafted a report in 1905 acknowledging all the abuses. King Leopold was compelled to relinquish management of the Congo to his government.
The Congo as a Belgian Colony:
In 1908, the Belgian parliament removed the personal privileges previously afforded to the king in managing the colony, which thereafter came to be known as the “Belgian Congo.” It appears that the nature of Belgian governance lacked stable and clear political-military frameworks, unlike the British and French colonies. Three main powers complemented each other in the Belgian system in the Congo:
A – The Belgian Administration:
Represented by the governor-general, who is accountable to the Minister of Colonies and subject to parliamentary scrutiny, the governor-general wields complete authority. He is appointed by royal decree along with a deputy appointed in the same manner, both of whom are naturally Belgian. The governor-general had sweeping powers.
By 1910, the situation in the Congo was becoming increasingly complicated. Belgian officials found it essential to involve tribal leaders to drive events in favor of the Belgians, considering them the key to economic penetration into the heart of the Congo and a means to prepare the tribes’ youth within the depths of the colony.
B – The Church:
Belgium placed all educational efforts on the shoulders of missionary societies, making the Belgian government’s role merely one of coordination between the Catholic and Protestant organizations working side by side in education. By 1938, the number of schools in the Congo reached 24 for Europeans and merely 7 for Africans. In 1904, the number rose to 31 Catholic schools for Europeans and 13 secular schools. The share of Africans was limited to 15 primary schools, all run by missionaries, with secondary schools only numbering five.
C – Major Economic Institutions:
These constituted the guiding authority for Belgian policy in the country, comprising government bodies that enabled resource exploitation. The most significant included five major companies controlling about 70% of the country’s economy, representing an enormous economic concentration unmatched in modern history. These companies included:
1 – The Brussels Finance and Industry Company (Prometina): which controlled the Brussels Bank and several industrial firms.
2 – The Congo Mining and Trade Company: which possessed vast agricultural holdings.
3 – The Unilever Company: represented in the Congo by the Huilver Company.
4 – The Ambank: which controlled many transport means.
5 – The Belgian General Company: the largest of these institutions, comprising the biggest conglomerates in the nation, including members of the royal family, government, and capitalist class. This company began its effective operations on Congo’s economy in 1928.
The National Movement and the Independence of the Congo:
Belgium attempted to confront the emergence of liberation currents by issuing some legislations in 1957, such as establishing management councils and a general advisory council for the Congo. However, these councils, along with the limited number of nationalists, were inadequate replacements for the legislative system demanded by the Congolese, in addition to other demands related to wages and equality of rights for all citizens irrespective of color, as well as social reforms that some Congolese began to feel their society desperately needed. Consequently, several national parties emerged, the most prominent being:
1 – The Abako Alliance:
Formed under the leadership of Joseph Kasavubu, Abako significantly contributed to political life, advocating in 1956 for giving the Congo independence and the withdrawal of Belgian troops from the country. The Abako received broad representation in the municipal elections of 1957, prompting it to insist on demanding independence.
2 – The African Union Party (Party SoldairrAfricain):
Headed by Antonie Gigenage, this party was formed in April 1959 in the Leopoldville province, holding its strongest influence in the Kafunfo and Kifilo areas.
3 – The National Progress Party (Party National Progress):
Led by Paul Boly, this party formed in November 1959, chiefly operating in the equatorial region, incorporating many small parties that had previously operated individually. It is noted that the colonizers were the ones who encouraged its formation for their colonial interests.
4 – The Congolese National Movement (Mouvement National Congres):
Formed in October 1958, despite being based primarily on the Bangala tribe in the eastern part of the country, it asserted the need to establish a strong, independent central state in the Belgian Congo.
The role of the Congolese national movement grew as Abako’s activity waned, with the movement characterized by its nationalistic sentiment that was not rooted in tribalism. Patrice Lumumba was elected as the movement’s leader, symbolized by the initials M.N.C. The movement soon divided into a moderate right wing led by the trio of Kalondji, Elio, and Adoula, and a left-wing faction led by Lumumba, who was imprisoned in October 1959.
As unrest erupted throughout the Congo, lasting until the end of 1959, Belgium was compelled to convene in Brussels on January 20, 1960, with national movement representatives from Abako and the Congolese National Movement, as well as some leaders from other parties. They agreed to grant the Congo independence on June 30, 1960.
Consequently, general elections were held to form the first national government post-independence, which the Belgian parliament approved, with Lumumba assuming the role of government head and Joseph Kasavubu becoming the president of the Congo. However, Belgium, through deceit and treachery, removed Lumumba from power in September 1960 and arrested him, subsequently transferring him to Katanga, and replacing him with Belgian agent “Tshombe.” Lumumba was assassinated on January 17, 1961. Nonetheless, the Congo was able to maintain its independence and join the Organization of African Unity since its inception in 1963, with Mobutu Sese Seko later assuming power on November 24, 1965.
Factors Accelerating Independence in the Belgian Congo:
Certain events hastened the independence of the Belgian colony Congo, summarized as follows:
External Factors:
A – The Decline of Colonial Powers: Due to their experiences during World War II, colonial populations gained courage to demand their rights.
B – Opposition from the Superpowers to Colonialism: The Soviet Union supported national liberation movements in its struggle against the imperial Western bloc during the Cold War, also aiding the formation of communist movements in several Asian (Vietnam) and African (Angola) countries.
Furthermore, the United States declared in August 1941 its opposition to colonialism and the right of peoples to self-determination through the signing of the “Atlantic Charter” between American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.
C – Opposition from International and Regional Organizations to Colonialism: Many international and regional organizations emerged during this time, including the United Nations, the Arab League, and the Organization of African Unity.
D – Asian-African Solidarity: The idea of Asian-African solidarity commenced from the Bandung Conference (a city on the island of Java, Indonesia) that convened on April 18, 1955, where the conference affirmed human rights principles and emphasized the right of peoples to self-determination and support for oppressed peoples.
E – The Wave of Independence in Asian and African Colonies: Colonial powers adopted varying policies towards the colonial issue, resulting in diverse national liberation movements, some drawing from liberal Western thought and others opposing colonialism and capitalism, led by socialist or communist parties.
Additionally, methods for achieving independence varied, ranging from armed resistance to political struggle.
Internal Factors:
A – Deepening Crisis in Colonized Societies: King Leopold of Belgium continued to exploit Congo’s resources for his personal benefit for over twenty years, making agreements with tribal leaders in the copper-rich Katanga region for concessions. This resulted in significant social disparity in rural areas, with land concentrated in the hands of large landowners among locals or colonizers and colonial companies, impoverishing small farmers, exacerbating displacement, worsening conditions for the working class, and weakening wages, malnutrition, and rising unemployment coinciding with demographic growth due to reduced mortality rates from disease control, which collectively heightened public anger against colonialism.
B – Contribution of Colonies to War Efforts for Colonial Powers: Although the colonies played a significant role in supporting imperial war efforts, colonialism ignored these sacrifices by refusing to grant freedom to colonized peoples, leading to invigorated anti-colonial sentiment.
C – Growing National Consciousness in Colonies during World War: After prolonged emphasis on reform or self-rule programs, the convergence of national forces—including parties, unions, and organizations—accelerated the formation of national fronts for liberation and the emergence of national leadership, largely due to the somewhat increased presence of education despite colonial restrictions on the emergence of national elites and educated cadres.
D – General de Gaulle’s Policy towards Colonies: His expressions of support for the desires of peoples for independence were notable. For instance, in a speech made during his visit to Brazzaville on August 24, 1958, he stated, “Anyone who wishes for independence can attain it immediately and at the time they desire.” Just two days after de Gaulle’s visit, Congolese pushed for a petition for a rapid reform program through a committee formed in Brussels, with Congolese participation.
E – The African Summit Conference in Accra on April 25, 1958: Attended by many leaders of political parties and labor unions from across the continent, Patrice Lumumba represented the national movement in the conference. This was regarded as the first victory for the movement, where Lumumba learned from the experiences of African leaders he met, adopting many of their viewpoints and resolutions that called for independence.
Lumumba returned to the Congo filled with revolutionary and combative spirit, rather than previous peaceful negotiations, mobilizing the party’s masses and organizing a demonstration of ten thousand people demanding independence, marking a significant shift in political party dynamics in the face of Belgian colonialism.
F – January 1959 Uprisings: On January 4, 1959, the Congo experienced severe disturbances, especially in Leopoldville, directly triggered by a gathering of the Abako party to outline party goals and discuss resolutions from the Accra Conference. In response, Belgian authorities dissolved the Abako movement and arrested its leaders. King Baudouin of Belgium promised on January 13, 1959, following worsening events, to grant the Congo its independence.
G – The Round Table Conference of Belgian and Congolese Leaders: In light of the widespread public discontent, Belgium summoned leaders of the national movement in the Congo for a conference in Brussels to agree on declaring independence. This conference was scheduled for January 20, 1960, concluding with decisions, including granting independence to the Congo on June 30, 1960.
Issues Left by Belgian Colonialism:
The troubles of the Congo began on the eve of independence when a celebration was held attended by King Baudouin, who expressed joy over Congo’s independence and the formation of a national government, attributing this to the friendship with Belgium. He warned against tribal divisions and inexperience that could pave the way for a return to foreign dominance. Lumumba’s response to King Baudouin’s speech was forceful; he criticized colonialism as “the slavery of humiliation imposed upon us by force,” and began his address with a vigorous and detailed list of the evils of Belgian rule exercised in the Congo. This determination led Belgium to seek to overthrow Lumumba at the first opportunity, with Kasavubu ready to assist in such a task.
Consequently, relations between the young Republic of Congo and the Belgian government became tense, leading to chaos and clashes between tribes. Additional confrontations emerged between the Congolese and Belgian forces, culminating in detrimental developments for the country and the African liberation movement. Below, we highlight some of the notable unrest and problems that occurred in the country:
The Katanga Secession Issue:
Just five days after declaring independence, Moïse Tshombe—supported by Belgium—announced the independence of the Katanga region on July 11, forming an economic partnership with Belgium. Belgian forces were dispatched to protect the secessionist region, which served as the site of massive Belgian investments, accounting for about 60% of the country’s national wealth. With Katanga being rich in copper and uranium, Lumumba held Belgium responsible for this secession, severing diplomatic relations with it in mid-July.
A series of secessions continued in the Congo following its independence, with the Kazhayi province led by Albert Kalonji declaring its independence two weeks after the Katanga region’s secession. The leaders of the Katanga and Kazhayi secessions proclaimed an alliance between their regions and sought together to oust Patrice Lumumba with the support of the Belgian government through Belgian mining companies in the Congo. Numerous local and regional forces contributed to supporting the separatists, with Lumumba’s calls for legitimacy and resistance against the secessionists receiving little response from the Soviet Union, the United States, or the United Nations.
The Political Crisis in the Congo:
The country descended into chaos for five years, divided into three zones of governance, each receiving support from a different entity:
1 – The central authority in Leopoldville supported by the United Nations and Western countries.
2 – The Soviet Union and “revolutionary” African nations backed Lumumba’s followers led by Antoine Gizenga, who controlled Saint-Léonard and eastern regions.
3 – Finally, the illegitimate Katanga government headed by Tshombe was supported by Western companies and the Belgian government.
On September 14, 1960, Mobutu, the chief of the Congolese army staff, staged a military coup against Lumumba’s government, ending with Lumumba’s arrest and subsequent assassination.
After violent clashes between Kasavubu, Tshombe, and Mobutu, the latter succeeded in becoming the president of the republic on November 25, 1965, renaming the country to “Zaire,” as it was known before colonization, and changing the capital’s name from Leopoldville to Kinshasa.
Mobutu ruled the country dictatorially for nearly 32 years, exploiting the nation’s immense wealth for personal gain. In 1997, “Laurent Kabila,” supported by Uganda and Rwanda, entered the capital Kinshasa leading a group of armed militants from the Tutsi tribes, announced the ousting of Mobutu, and renamed Zaire to the “Democratic Republic of the Congo,” followed by subsequent political crises.
Deteriorating Economic Conditions:
Foreign stakeholders with economic interests were the primary direct cause of the unrest in the country. They actively worked to manipulate events for their intervention and assert their influence to protect their interests, including foreign hands from the United States, Britain, and Belgium.
Before June 1960, American companies operating in the country hastened to maneuver to prevent the Congolese from accessing their heritage. Just three days before the declaration of independence, decrees were issued to dissolve some companies, and to ensure that Belgian companies demonstrated that Congo could not do without Belgian financial aid, they withdrew significant amounts of capital while maximizing the export of Congolese products and minimizing the country’s imports, leading to a disruption of the Congolese trade balance.
When unrest broke out in the Congo, the Belgian forces operating in the country rushed to intervene, with additional troops arriving on July 8, 1960, welcomed by Congolese President Kasavubu. However, soon after, battles broke out between Congolese and Belgian forces.
References
Books:
“King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa” by Adam Hochschild
- This widely recognized book explores the brutal exploitation of the Congo Free State under King Leopold II and the international outcry it sparked. It provides an in-depth look at the causes of Belgian colonialism and the catastrophic consequences for the Congolese people.
“Colonialism in the Congo Basin, 1880-1940” by Samuel Henry Nelson
- Nelson focuses on the establishment of colonial rule in the Congo, particularly Belgium’s role in exploiting natural resources and indigenous labor, which illustrates the economic and political motivations behind Belgian colonization.
“The Congo: Plunder and Resistance” by Jules Marchal
- This work delves into the exploitation of the Congo’s wealth and the violent methods used by Belgian colonial authorities, showing how Belgium’s economic interests led to a system of plunder and repression.
“The Assassination of Lumumba” by Ludo De Witte
- De Witte examines the assassination of Congo’s first Prime Minister, Patrice Lumumba, focusing on Belgium’s role in destabilizing the newly independent Congo. It provides insights into the consequences of colonialism and the lasting political impact on post-colonial Africa.
“Reforming the Congo: Missionaries, Bureaucrats, and Justice in Colonial Africa” by Jeanne M. Haskin
- This book explores the role of Belgian missionaries and colonial officials in the Congo, showing the moral justifications used for colonization and the lasting social and cultural impacts.
“The Colonial State in the Congo: An Institutional and Historical Overview” by Crawford Young
- Young presents an institutional analysis of the Belgian colonial state in the Congo, offering insights into how Belgian administrative and economic policies shaped the colony’s development and its legacy.
Articles:
“Belgium’s Heart of Darkness: The Colonial Occupation of the Congo, Causes, and Consequences” by Richard Toye
- This article discusses the political and economic motivations behind Belgium’s occupation of the Congo, as well as the resulting human and environmental impacts.
“King Leopold’s Imperialism and the Scramble for Africa” by Kevin C. Dunn (Journal of African History)
- Dunn analyzes the political and strategic factors that led to King Leopold II’s acquisition of the Congo Free State, connecting it to the broader context of European imperialism in Africa.
“Colonial Rule in the Congo and Its Consequences: From Forced Labor to Independence” by Pierre Jacquemot
- This article traces the history of Belgian colonialism in the Congo, focusing on the policies of forced labor and their socioeconomic consequences for Congolese society.
“Economic Exploitation and the Environment: Belgian Congo, 1885–1960” by David N. Gibbs
- Published in Journal of African Development, this article examines how Belgian colonial policies aimed at extracting natural resources contributed to both economic growth and environmental degradation in the Congo.
“The Legacies of Belgian Colonialism in the Congo: Violence, Memory, and Identity” by Katrien Pype (Africa Today)
- This article discusses the lasting legacies of Belgian colonial rule on contemporary Congolese society, examining the effects on identity, memory, and post-colonial violence.
