The origin of strategic thinking traces back to Chinese thought in the writings of the philosopher and military commander Sun Tzu. This thought was interwoven with the prevailing philosophies of the time, the most prominent being Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. The two philosophies – Taoism and Confucianism – had implications for Chinese strategy, and to this day, China draws from Taoist philosophy in its inclination toward peace and non-intervention in the internal affairs of other countries, and from Confucianism as a tool to reshape the image of the system.
The central question of this paper is: To what extent have these two philosophies impacted Chinese strategic thought?
1 – What does “strategy” mean?
Prof. Dr. Mahrez Al-Husseini states that strategy is: “a goal and means, and a method for employing these means at all levels” [1]. It is divided into national strategy and military strategy. Our focus here is on military strategy, which is the art of employing a state’s military capabilities to achieve the political objective of war. Thus, strategy is based on the concept of capabilities and constraints. To clarify the meaning, we must refer to the origin of the concept in Chinese philosophy. Therefore, we will discuss several fundamental dimensions in this analysis:
- Taoist philosophy and its contributions to Chinese social and political life.
- Confucian philosophy and its contributions to Chinese social and political life.
2 – Taoist Philosophy
The concept of the Tao in the philosophy of Laozi refers to the principle or destiny. The Chinese Word Ocean defines it as the natural law or the intrinsic entity of things – the principle, essence, and inner nature that drives everything. It is a mystical philosophy expressed in poetic form but never deviates from the requirements of nature and the universe.
Taoism is considered the first natural philosophy or attempt to study the world physically in a philosophical manner. Laozi, the pioneer of Taoism, indicated that the Tao is the principle of existence. They were preoccupied with how beings emerge from the womb of the Tao. Therefore, the Tao as a path and a reform is a religious-philosophical belief that appeared in the 6th century BC and was founded by Laozi in the book Tao Te Ching (The Book of the Way and Virtue).
Taoism is divided into two types: (1) Religious Taoism and (2) Philosophical Taoism – thus, it is both a religion and a philosophy.
The indication that Taoism is a religion lies in the principles of Taoists. Laozi believed that goodness lies in the mind, moderation, forgiveness, tolerance with people, and not returning evil with evil, but rather with good – which is the safest and most perfect form of human existence. These are principles close to religious beliefs. However, here we are concerned with philosophical Taoism, not religious Taoism.
First: How to reach the Tao (Mystical Knowledge)
Truth or knowledge, according to Taoists, cannot be reached through reason, analytical knowledge, or logic, but through self-learning and mystical revelation (inspiration). Hence, it is akin to Sufism, and mysticism is the only path to knowledge according to Taoists.
Second: The Most Important Philosophical Pillars of Taoist Thought
Taoism is based on the idea of absolute nature. They pointed out that to reach a state of harmony and success, a person’s thought and behavior must align with nature and its laws. It is essentially about returning to a natural way of life and adopting a passive stance toward civilization and modernity. Therefore, Taoism does not believe in the state or class inequality but rather believes that all humans are equal, and no one has the right to impose their will on others.
Taoism gives utmost importance to nature and its elements – the movement of the universe, sun, moon, stars, and planets in fixed orbits. Sun Tzu mentioned in The Art of War that war should begin from a high ground: “Stand on a mountain and keep the sun behind you.”
Third: Contributions of Taoism (Reality, Social and Political Views, War)
The goal of Taoism is to achieve perfection within oneself. It is evident that they reject the external world and focus on the celestial world and the supreme law. Taoism calls on humans to free themselves from evil, anger, and violence. It is based on two opposing forces (Yin and Yang) – everything seeks balance between them to achieve harmony with the Tao and the desired unity.
- Yin: Negative force (Moon – Darkness – Female)
- Yang: Positive force (Sun – Light – Male)
This is evident in the works of the two greatest Taoist philosophers, Laozi and Zhuangzi, who both explored dualities in the universe (good and evil). Laozi’s teachings emphasize the “unity of opposites”: “Being and non-being arise from one another, just as the difficult and easy complement each other…”
Taoism and Reality
Taoism does not encourage changing reality, but rather calls for following the laws of nature without interfering. It encourages harmony between thought and human behavior with nature. This is reflected in its teachings, such as: “Human movement is like water flowing from the mountain. If it encounters an obstacle, it does not remove it but flows around it” (i.e., do not change).
Taoist Political and Social Views
Taoism contains many political, ethical, and economic ideas concerning states, rulers, and the ruled. It rejects class discrimination, as all people are seen as equal: “For heaven does not distinguish between one person and another.”
Taoism developed as a religious-philosophical system and spread among the people by the second century AD, thanks to the “Great Peace” movement. The “New Taoism” emerged in the third century AD alongside the rise of several intellectual schools. The Communist regime under Mao Zedong in 1949 suppressed all religions, including Taoism. However, since 1976, more tolerant attitudes toward religions began to appear after Mao’s death. Taoist culture has had a profound impact on China, penetrating most of its communities and social classes.
Taoism and War
Taoists always lean toward peace. They acknowledge that war cannot be entirely eliminated, but when it occurs, it should be conducted according to humanitarian standards. Taoism believes in humanity and does not condone bloodshed:
“Do not fight people… Stay away from evil and war… Be soft like water.”
Taoism criticizes wars, restricts the military spirit, and advises rulers and kings not to resort to violence, to hasten the end of wars, and never to boast about them.
Some of Sun Tzu’s principles align with Taoist thought:
- “The commander who wins a bloody battle is not on the same level as the one who wins without fighting.”
- A popular saying among soldiers: “I dare not take the first step… But I like to play the guest… I dare not advance an inch, but I’m ready to retreat a yard… Capture the enemy without attacking… Arm without weapons.”
- In Sun Tzu’s advice: “Defeat your enemy before attacking him; defense is better than offense.”
This establishes the concept of psychological warfare in its modern sense.
3 – Confucian Philosophy
First: Defining Confucianism
Confucianism is an ethical and social philosophy that aims to define the optimal human behavior within society. It consists of beliefs and religious rituals derived from classical texts that were refined and compiled by Confucius, in addition to the moral, social, and political teachings he instructed his followers to implement.
It advocates for absolute traditionalism, commitment to old values, respect for ancestors and parents, and submission to rulers.
Second: The Truth of Confucianism
Confucius’s teachings were originally meant to strengthen the state’s control over its citizens, by reconciling heaven and earth (the secular and the divine), and the invisible and the visible. Hence, the importance of ancestor worship, respect for parents, and submission to rulers.
In this system, the emperor – called the Son of Heaven – is the supreme priest responsible for managing worldly affairs. In short, Confucianism is less than a religion and more than an ethical system:
- For the king, it is an art of governance.
- For intellectuals, it is a moral and political philosophy.
- For the people, it is a means to express loyalty to society and the imperial authority.
Confucianism is far from metaphysical concerns and is not based on absolute belief or a priestly class. Like everything else, it focuses on pragmatic and tangible matters, striving to achieve harmony by balancing opposing forces (Yin and Yang) and establishing social and political order through family virtues, fraternal love, education, and cultural enlightenment. Every person should occupy a social rank they deserve, determined through tests measuring their knowledge of classical literature.
Third: Main Pillars of Confucian Philosophy
Confucius analyzed human nature to fully understand the principles guiding individuals to achieve their goals. His goal was to understand man in order to reform both the individual and society. He developed the idea of the “noble man” based on understanding these principles, which were later enriched by other philosophers and became part of China’s cultural heritage.
The main principles include:
- Li: Refers to all socially accepted customs and ethics – it means etiquette and morals.
- Ren (Jin): Defined by Confucius as “love for humanity”, meaning behavior that serves the public good by following the Tao. Ren also means virtue, humanity, kindness, moral character, goodness, compassion, and tenderness. It is considered the pinnacle of human morality.
- Xiao (Hsiao): Refers to filial piety. Confucius deeply believed in the virtuous person as a product of education that leads to noble values and traditions. Only the virtuous person can build a well-structured family, which in turn leads to a happy society. Obedience is key – children obey parents, wives obey husbands, and citizens obey rulers. A well-organized family is the foundation of an orderly society.
- Yi: Means righteousness or integrity – the moral readiness to act ethically and the awareness of right behavior.
Fourth: Confucianism and Governance
The ideal city in Confucius’s view – the “Great Harmony” – is based on full equality and resembles socialist systems. The world is one republic, where competent individuals are chosen to rule. The ruler bears the highest moral responsibility toward the state and derives his legitimacy from public trust.
The ideal ruler, according to Confucius, embodies the close link between ethics and politics. He is required to achieve nine key objectives:
- Organize his personal behavior.
- Respect talented individuals.
- Show empathy for relatives and family.
- Respect state ministers.
- Present himself as a father to the people.
- Encourage sciences.
- Participate in the interests of state officials and aim to bring happiness…
References
- Ancient Chinese Philosophies and Chinese Strategic Thought
- The Art of War by Sun Tzu (Sunzi)
- Tao Te Ching by Laozi (Lao Tzu)
- The Analects by Confucius
- Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu) by Zhuang Zhou
- The Book of Rites (Liji)
- The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China – Translated by Ralph D. Sawyer
- The Tao of War by Ralph D. Sawyer
- Chinese Strategy and Military Power in 2014: Chinese, U.S., and Russian Perspectives by Anthony H. Cordesman
- The Tao of Politics: Lessons of the Master Strategists of Ancient China by Thomas Cleary
