Classifications are an essential part of our daily lives; they help us organize and better understand the world around us. They serve as a means to group together similar objects and ideas based on shared characteristics, facilitating easier interaction with them. Consequently, classifications shape discourse and behaviors within societies across the globe. However, it is crucial to remain aware of their influence on our thoughts and actions, particularly as they can lead to oversimplification or unjust discrimination, raising ethical issues within communities.
In a new social approach, author Gregory L. Murphy presents a book titled “Categories We Live By… How We Classify Everyone and Everything.” The book explores the general nature of categories, their origins, and their connections to the world, society, and language, applying these concepts to case studies. Murphy emphasizes the human need for classification, noting that while everything—whether a being, person, or event—is unique with its history, composition, and distinctive characteristics, items are sometimes grouped into classifications that overlook these unique aspects.
At the outset of his exploration into classifications within societies, the author poses several questions that humanity grapples with. These include inquiries like: What is the nature of classifications? Are they real? Do they exist in nature, or are they human inventions? Does our language determine the classifications we possess? What is the impact of using classifications? Murphy notes that at times, classifications may be viewed as rigidly defined by rules, at other times by loose commonalities, and sometimes by deep physical properties. The reality, however, shows that a single classification can be perceived in these varied ways at different times.
The author highlights that many individuals attempt to inform us about our classifications or how these classifications ought to be. Such influences come from various sources, including legal authorities, scientists, educators, corporations, and partners, among others. But should we listen to them? To answer this question, it is essential to understand where classifications originate and how we perceive them.
Murphy argues that the philosophical question of whether classifications exist independently in the world or are simply human constructs is not valid. From his perspective, classifications are a blend of both. He illustrates this by providing examples, noting that the classification of “ball” in soccer relies on the rules created by humans, while the classification of “trees” is based on their natural existence in the world. Furthermore, human classifications are partly reliant on the external world.
Even socially or artificially constructed classifications must respond to reality in some way, even if that reality is defined by agreements and social structures. For instance, the classification of singles only functions if there are adult men who are unmarried; these traits carry significance in our culture. Conversely, whether one is married is a social fact determined by societal rules. Therefore, such social classifications are partly dependent on the world; they are not purely inventive, nor can they be entirely random; rather, they must reflect the reality of the social structures established by society.
Language and Classifications
Murphy discusses how although categories or classifications and words are not the same, many words denote categories, and often the existence of a category is recognized through its name. Categories can have names consisting of one or more words, greatly enhancing our understanding of categories or classifications; words define categories and convey additional information about them. Consequently, the author sees this as evidence that classifications precede language, rather than the opposite.
Nevertheless, ambiguity in language manifests in various forms, including similar words and words with multiple meanings. Similar words can create confusion when two different terms share the same letters but differ in meaning. Meanwhile, polysemy occurs when a single word has multiple interconnected meanings, as in the case of “bank,” which can refer to a building or a financial institution. Although these phenomena pose challenges to understanding categories, they may also facilitate language in distinguishing between them.
Culture and Categories
The book examines the formation of categories and classifications across different cultures and how they are influenced by language and environment. There is a similarity among cultures in defining broad categories such as nationalities and species. However, more specific categories vary according to cultural and environmental interests. Urban cultures in Europe and North America have lost familiarity with natural categories due to their separation from nature and limited daily interaction with it. Murphy observes that deep knowledge of natural categories was common among previous generations that interacted more with the environment, while today’s children encounter information primarily via multimedia sources, such as documentaries and social media.
The author further explores types of categories that do not fall within the realm of the natural world, such as religions, cuisines, clothing, political organizations, and family relationships. He notes that these types of categories differ from one culture to another. Nonetheless, despite cultural differences in categories, some hold objective reality, like the classification of cars, which can generally be agreed upon across diverse cultures. In a study aimed at understanding how people classify items within various cultures, university students from the United States, China, and Argentina were asked to name items in their native languages. The study revealed significant differences in classifications among different cultures, while there was substantial agreement on the fundamental classifications of objects.
The study also indicated that language is not the decisive factor impacting classifications; rather, the similarities between objects largely hinge on individuals’ perspectives without significant influence from language. For instance, two items might share the same name but not actually be similar. Generally, the study showed a strong consensus among various cultures and languages regarding fundamental classifications, suggesting that individuals’ classification thinking abilities are somewhat similar worldwide, despite language and cultural differences.
Legal Classifications
The book delves into legal classifications and their impact on individuals and communities. The author explains how legal categories are defined and applied in legislation and regulations, with a focus on how these categories are interpreted and applied in legal practice. For illustration, he offers an example involving a law prohibiting vehicles from entering a park, raising questions about how vehicles are defined and the types of cars to which the law applies. This highlights how legal categories can be unclear and fraught with overlaps, necessitating legal and judicial decisions to clarify boundaries and enforce laws.
Another example of legal categories is the definition and classification of crimes into felonies and misdemeanors, and how penalties are applied to those accused of various offenses. The author discusses the impact of these legal categories on individuals’ lives, such as the loss of voting rights due to a felony classification versus a misdemeanor. He emphasizes the significant challenges associated with defining and applying legal categories, stressing the need to balance strict classification with flexibility in the legal system. Moreover, establishing legal categories can be challenging and requires judgment and wisdom to delineate boundaries fairly and justly.
Psychological Classifications
The book examines an intriguing case concerning the classifications of mental disorders used to categorize mental illnesses worldwide. The author argues that mental illnesses and behavioral disorders are real, affecting millions in the United States alone. However, it remains unclear whether the categories under which individuals are classified are genuinely valid, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or borderline personality disorder.
Despite psychiatrists using classifications learned during their educational training, their practical application can vary from one practitioner to another, leading to difficulties in research and the development of scientific understanding of mental illnesses. Consequently, the American Psychiatric Association published a diagnostic manual that defines primary categories of mental disorders, known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM. This guide aims to standardize terminology and ensure a common understanding among all.
Research indicates that psychological categories may be unclear and diverse, making the identification of mental disorders a challenging task. Some studies have shown that psychiatrists treat categories as models, agreeing on certain cases as ideal models while differing in the classification of non-ideal cases. Therefore, the definition of psychological categories continues to evolve with each new edition of the DSM.
Key Conclusions
The author notes that human classifications can be confusing and multifaceted, necessitating a nuanced understanding, critical thinking, and consideration of the ethical aspects in our classification processes within communities. In fact, if there is any overarching conclusion, it is that our classifications are rooted in a variety of bases, some of which may even be contradictory. Not only do different classifications arise from various sources and rely on differing reasoning, but even a single category (for instance, race) may have multiple foundations. This leads to an important implication: we must take responsibility and sometimes make difficult decisions regarding classifications.
Despite this diversity among classifications, there are some common insights that can be drawn from the discussions presented in the book, which include:
- Diversity and Complexity: Human classifications are not uniform but diverse, stemming from various sources such as legal systems and societal stereotypes. This diversity explains the evident complexity in classifications.
- Contradictory Foundations: Even within a single category, like race, there can be contradictory bases for classification, leading to ambiguity and conflict.
- Responsibility in Classification: The diversity and complexity of classifications require us to take responsibility for our classificatory systems. Simple principles and traditional rules are insufficient, necessitating rigorous examination and sometimes difficult decision-making.
- Shared Ethics: Despite the varied nature of human categories, the cross-sectional analysis in this book highlights the importance of acknowledging biases, addressing them, promoting inclusivity and fairness, and recognizing the limitations that categories face over time.
Source:
Gregory L. Murphy, “Categories We Live By: How We Classify Everyone and Everything,” The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2023.
