The Impact of Climate Change on Yemen: Enhancing Adaptation Strategies

In October 2023, Cyclone “Tej” hit the eastern regions of Yemen with winds that were 60% stronger than Cyclone Chapala in November 2015. However, it caused significantly less damage than the previous cyclones, Chapala and Megh, which struck southeast Yemen in the same month. This is attributed to the adaptation measures taken over the past decade. This clearly demonstrates that the actions implemented in recent years, although limited, have significantly contributed to mitigating the impacts of these climatic phenomena.

Extreme climatic conditions have increasingly become a serious problem for Yemenis, requiring them to face and address this challenge. While these conditions have intensified in recent years, they are not new; the country has been suffering from the effects of climate change for decades, long before these issues became apparent in other parts of the world. Despite the urgent need to address this emergency, decision-makers in Yemen pay little attention to environmental issues, even as their frequency and severity increase, as evidenced by the floods, thunderstorms, and recurring droughts over the past year. As climate-related problems continue to play a more critical role in the daily lives of the Yemeni population, all stakeholders—local and international, governmental and private—must prioritize strategies aimed at mitigating these climate-related issues and improving the well-being of the population.

Main Causes of the Environmental Crisis in Yemen

Water Scarcity
Water scarcity is the most pressing and visible environmental problem in Yemen. The country lacks permanent rivers, and there is a significant disparity in rainfall levels from one region to another. Thus, the two primary sources of water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial needs in Yemen are groundwater extraction from wells and traditional rainwater harvesting and collection methods. Figures indicate that more than one-third, or 1.4 billion cubic meters of the total 3.5 billion cubic meters of water consumed annually in Yemen, are sourced from non-renewable fossil aquifers. Given the country’s topography, rainfall varies from almost zero in arid areas to up to 800 millimeters annually in a few rain-laden regions, specifically in the mountainous governorates of Ibb and Taiz, with the national average being less than 50 millimeters per year. Furthermore, in recent decades, climate change has affected both the timing and amount of rainfall in the five agricultural regions of the country, causing increases in some areas and decreases in others.

The high mountain ranges near the Red Sea coastline capture seasonal rains and benefit from moisture carried from the sea, making these areas suitable for rain-fed agriculture and some of the most densely populated in the country. Overall, per capita water availability has declined to 81 cubic meters and is expected to drop further to 55 cubic meters by 2030, a far cry from the modest international minimum standard of 500 cubic meters based on the “Falconmark” water scarcity index.

Although population density is concentrated in urban and mountainous areas in western and southwestern Yemen, the available water is still far from sufficient to meet the needs, especially amidst rapid population growth over the past three decades. As with other countries, between 80% to 90% of water in Yemen is used for agricultural purposes, where irrigated land increased from 37,000 hectares in the 1970s to over 400,000 hectares in 2010.

Irrigation practices in Yemen vary, with crops watered either directly by rain, shallow and deep groundwater wells, or by surface flooding, specifically for staple crops like millet and sorghum. Deep-well irrigation is considered one of the most environmentally harmful irrigation methods and has recently seen significant expansion due to local investments and development support. Water is usually pumped using electricity generated from diesel fuel or recently emerging solar power, which can be provided by wealthy landowners cultivating high-value cash crops for local consumption and export, such as bananas, mangoes, grapes, khat, and pomegranates. This issue is exacerbated by land ownership being concentrated in the hands of fewer individuals, resulting in many small farmers and landholders being stripped of land ownership when their shallow wells dry up, forcing them into a cycle of poverty. This occurs alongside rapid population growth against stable or declining resources.

Water allocated for domestic use remains a significant issue, with thousands of rural families depending on women and children to fetch water from distant wells or springs to be carried home on their heads or donkeys, a tiresome and unsanitary process, despite improved “enhanced” well sources being relatively clean. In urban areas, families connected to local water networks rarely receive daily access to water. In Taiz, for instance, half of the city’s households were linked to municipal water networks before the war, receiving water only once every 40 days at best. At that time, families in Sana’a received water twice a week. Sana’a has now surpassed the unenviable prospect of becoming the world’s first capital to run out of water, facing drought not due to any notable improvements made but rather due to the deterioration of water situations in other countries.

The depletion of water is not an immediate process occurring overnight; it begins with the cessation of rainfall, followed by well dryness, prompting residents to increasingly source water from distant supplies. This leads to temporary migration to other areas, returning as wells become replenished and relocating again upon their drying, eventually settling in homes elsewhere. Forced migration due to water scarcity is not a random or sudden event compared to, for example, migration that follows floods or earthquakes when populations move to better locations, increasing pressure on public services there, including access to water, sanitation, education, health, and employment. These pressures exacerbate tensions between indigenous and new community residents. Ultimately, Yemenis may be compelled to leave their homeland, most likely seeking refuge in neighboring countries such as Saudi Arabia, Oman, or the UAE.

Ecosystem Degradation
Biodiversity and ecosystem degradation in Yemen have been declining for decades and are worsening due to a combination of human interventions and manifestations of global warming, adversely affecting both land and sea. Terrestrial ecosystems are impacted by soil erosion, the decline of agricultural terraces and soil, and the shrinking of pastures, in addition to oil exploration and extraction activities. Desertification is partly due to the ongoing cutting of trees for firewood and charcoal production, a problem exacerbated by poverty and war, as the population cannot afford domestic cooking gas and thus resorts to cutting the few remaining trees, which are already suffering from overgrazing. The significance of shrubs and local grasses found in pastures lies in feeding livestock, which serves as a primary source of income for many landless families and protects soil, medicinal herbs, and provides agroforestry benefits.

Agricultural activities contribute to accelerating pasture degradation due to overgrazing. For example, the number of sheep in Yemen increased by a third between 2001 and 2012, while the number of goats rose from seven to nine million, a total increase from 1.43 heads per hectare in 2001 to 2.87 in 2012. Nonetheless, even in places where shrubs and trees are scarce, many are still cut down or removed for agricultural expansion, and various invasive tree species, like the mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), have overshadowed and displaced native trees.

Limited so-called protected areas (nature reserves) exist in Yemen, and those that do are not adequately or effectively protected. Only 1% of the country’s total area is designated for protection, and the Socotra Archipelago and Jabal Bura’a in Al Hudaydah governorate have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage sites. Yemen is known for being home to various wildlife, including deer, ibex, tigers, and leopards, many of which are currently hunted despite their scarcity, while also losing their habitat due to climate change and human encroachments. For example, the tradition of placing ibex horns in the corners of homes in Hadhramaut encourages more hunting and killing of these wild animals.

The remaining mammal species have been listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List, with three out of four species of deer in Yemen being endangered and the fourth extinct in the wild, along with the Arabian leopard and ibex. Few Arabian tigers, hyenas, baboons, honey badgers, ibex, and foxes remain, while all sea turtle species are threatened with extinction. According to the sixth national biodiversity report of 2019, “most large mammals have long been hunted to their extinction in this country plagued by firearms, and a significant portion of natural forests has been cut down and cleared,” noting that direct human intervention and habitat loss play a significant role in the disappearance of wildlife.

According to an incomplete study by the U.S. Geological Survey aimed at comparing coastal environments over 20 years, coastal environments are experiencing rising sea levels and erosion. Marine ecosystems have suffered from the loss of wetlands, mangrove degradation, coral loss, and coastal erosion. At the same time, increased coastal urban expansion, fishing, and pollution from ships have harmed coral reefs, mangroves, lakes, and beaches. Additionally, turtle breeding grounds have been lost or damaged; in eastern Hadhramaut, local wild dogs consumed turtle eggs laid in a “protected area.” Furthermore, fishery protection measures are not enforced, being ignored by influential local fishing boat owners as well as foreign vessels that have fished marine species to the brink of extinction.

Climate Change and the Anthropocene
Extreme climate events in Yemen, such as cyclones, have become more frequent than ever. In 2015, two cyclones occurred in one week, two more in 2018, and another significant cyclone in October 2023. Heavy rains and floods do not alleviate drought but cause rapid runoff, preventing water from being absorbed into the ground and replenishing aquifers, damaging agricultural terraces and eroding valley banks while destroying numerous waterway structures. The unpredictability of these events affects agricultural calendars, while their increasing frequency exacerbates cost-of-living crises. Simultaneously, prolonged drought periods prevent families from proactively planning crisis mitigation measures such as saving money or stockpiling grains or fodder. Strong winds whip through drought-stricken areas, eroding viable topsoil and creating sand and dust storms.

A study by the Geological Survey and Mineral Resources Authority found that landslides often only occur when slopes are saturated with water due to heavy rainfall. “These slopes have not been disturbed for hundreds of years and have only seen this number of landslides during this period due to heavy rains.” It adds that “these landslides and heavy rains have caused increased sediment and flowing water levels in the valleys, leading to destabilized slopes, burying and eroding agricultural land, and destroying buildings and roads, extending non-arable and construction areas.”

Across the country, rising temperatures represent a growing issue. Over the past five decades, this problem has gradually increased in all five agricultural regions. It worsens due to reliance on modern building techniques with poor insulation, unlike traditional construction in many parts of Yemen, where beautiful homes made from mud bricks provide excellent insulation against heat and cold.

Sea level rise is also an increasing concern. Since 1993, sea levels have risen by 3 millimeters annually, with a global rise projected at 0.54 meters by 2100, putting most coastal areas at risk, posing particular threats to the cities of Al Hudaydah, Aden, and Mukalla, as well as all fishing communities and villages along the coast. This level of sea rise will impact the infrastructure and living conditions of millions of people and also affect nearby coastal groundwater layers and other accessible regions, causing salinity in waters currently used for domestic and agricultural purposes.

Pollution
Greenhouse gas emissions in Yemen are extremely low; however, 69% of them stem from fossil fuel consumption for energy production, transportation, oil exploration, emissions from vehicles, industry, and poor management of solid and liquid waste, agricultural chemicals, residential human waste, and industrial waste. Pollution from petroleum and gas-powered vehicles has degraded air quality, while negligence in waste disposal has led to soil contamination and affecting groundwater layers. Oil exploration and production, primarily a national problem, have caused significant pollution of various types, including oil spills along pipelines either intentionally or accidentally, and the reinjection of contaminated water and oil waste during oil production. Additionally, ships continuously discharge various types of oil waste into the sea (whether intentionally or otherwise). The war has also exacerbated environmental issues by spreading unexploded ordnance such as landmines and bombs.

Inadequate Sanitation and Human Waste Disposal Systems
The increase in population and the “modernization” of housing have led to increased domestic water consumption and the abandonment of traditional sewage systems in large buildings across much of Yemen. Traditional disposal methods used little water for human waste removal and were designed to be environmentally compatible with the climate, enabling the production of fertilizers from solid waste and letting liquid waste drain into fields. Modern sanitation requires more water, not only for flushing toilets but also for pushing waste through sewage systems to disposal sites. Insufficient sewage treatment facilities in cities and the total absence of them in rural areas have led to the accumulation of contaminated sewage near residential areas, thus spreading diseases by creating a breeding ground for mosquitoes and concentrating salmonella and other infectious bacteria.

Fisheries
Marine fisheries are a key resource for Yemen, which boasts long coastlines along the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea. Despite national and international laws, overfishing continues at the expense of sustainability and local artisanal fishers, with large, powerful vessels encroaching on nearshore areas. Due to funding shortages and weak government authority, protection measures have been ineffective and law enforcement weak. Consequently, some marine species are a step away from extinction; for instance, the crab catch in Al Mahrah Governorate was extremely low in the early 2000s, with only one crab available for purchase after multiple days of visits to fishing sites.

Current Adaptation Initiatives and Policies
Environmental Policies
Yemen’s National Action Program to Adapt to Climate Change of 2009 included several projects and strategies to address the environmental crisis. The emphasis was on water management and coastal issues, including developing integrated coastal zone management and restoring mangrove forests. The program highlighted the importance of raising awareness, including incorporating climate change topics into educational curricula. It suggested establishing a database on climate change. The program addressed numerous problems faced by rural populations through restoration and rehabilitation of agricultural terraces to increase arable land, assist in replenishing aquifers, and reduce topsoil erosion. It also recommended conducting research and encouraging the cultivation of drought-resistant, heat-tolerant, and salt-tolerant crops. Sustainable land management to combat desertification and land degradation is crucial and relevant to water management and other environmental aspects.

The National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Strategy, also issued in 2009, addressed issues related to domestic energy uses and other energy applications. This initiative focused on several projects, including concentrated solar power for electricity generation through the national grid, integrating 400 megawatts of wind farms into the national grid, and 200 megawatts of geothermal energy, all expected to be built by 2025, alongside 6 megawatts of biomass power plants using landfill gas and individual solar home systems in rural areas to cover 110,000 households.

According to the sixth national biodiversity report of 2019, progress in environmental issues was assessed, revealing that less than a quarter of the planned adaptation and mitigation measures had been implemented. Many issues were overlooked, including sustainable production and consumption, fragmentation of natural habitats, sustainability of fisheries and agriculture, environmental pollution, invasive plant species, genetic diversity, fragile ecological systems, and nature reserves. The mentioned reasons included institutional weakness, ineffective planning and management, and low public awareness. In recent years, there has been a noticeable shift in public awareness, as the deteriorating climate situation has led to strong public calls for enhancing preparedness for facing severe and extreme weather phenomena. Although environmental challenges have increased, the national disaster risk reduction plan had not been implemented until 2022. Moreover, the role of the Environmental Emergency Unit of the Ministry of Water and Environment and its responsibilities regarding strategies and actions is characterized by ambiguity and lack of clarity, even for those directly involved in these matters.

In contrast to the inertia and lack of official actions, local initiatives have been relatively active. In Hadhramaut, the Environmental Protection Authority established local teams to devise disaster risk reduction plans. Agricultural associations organized training sessions on disaster management, flood irrigation, and raising awareness about waste disposal issues. The Geological Survey Authority prepared flood, flash flood, and landslide risk maps in Hadhramaut and Al Mahrah.

A recent nationwide survey revealed high levels of awareness and concern among the population about climate change impacts, especially given heavy rains causing flash floods and the increasing frequency of cyclones recently. Many people generally believe that rainfall levels are declining, the timing of rainy seasons has changed, droughts are occurring more frequently, temperatures are rising, and groundwater levels are falling. The adaptation measures taken by citizens reflect a sense of desperation about the situation, as many residents migrate, seek non-agricultural jobs, convert agricultural land to residential areas, and sell land. Hundreds of study participants, both rural and urban, unanimously called for state intervention to protect the environment and enforce existing regulations and laws.

There are multiple reasons why the implementation of environmental adaptation efforts has been ineffective. One key factor is the lack of commitment from political leaders on all sides involved in the current conflict, along with other factors such as a lack of funding and expertise, as well as the multiplicity of stakeholders. Sector officials indicated that the reason lies in the lack of funding for environmental adaptation initiatives and the imbalance between what is said and what is actually implemented by international funders.

Water Management Policies
After being left to “free market” methodologies that contributed to the overexploitation of this vital and limited resource for a long time, the state finally managed this vital resource by establishing the National Water Resources Authority in 1995. Despite its official responsibility for water management, it still lacks the capacity to enforce relevant laws and specialized personnel. In 2012, a water law was enacted, followed nearly a decade later by its internal regulations. The law remains in a state of institutional weakness, primarily because powers related to irrigation (the most utilized aspect of water) were delegated to the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, stripping the Ministry of Water and Environment of the ability to address and manage this critically important aspect.

In January 2011, a national conference was held on managing and developing water resources in Yemen following years of efforts by concerned officials and experts. The conference resulted in the “Sanaa Declaration for the Yemeni Water Partnership,” which provided inadequate remedies for existing problems, primarily because the government led by Ali Abdullah Saleh was unwilling to address the excessive water extraction by influential landowners. Nonetheless, the minor progress made subsequently halted later that year due to the uprising and the end of Saleh’s regime. Over the past decade, environmental issues have significantly worsened due to the internationalization of the civil war and political fragmentation, furthermore, the modest positive gains achieved began to fade—despite the absence of electricity and the lack of diesel having contributed to decreased water pumping levels from deep wells in the initial stages of the war—especially after wealthy farmers utilized solar-powered irrigation systems, continuing to deplete fossil water basins. This has accelerated the worsening of the water crisis in Yemen, causing experts to lose hope that the conflict will contribute to the preservation of fossil aquifers.

In the absence of government interventions, individuals and communities have adapted in various ways to the ongoing environmental crisis, with community initiatives to raise awareness about these problems becoming numerous alongside other calls for government actions to address this fundamental issue. These efforts include scaling up rainwater harvesting projects for local use and agricultural purposes, alongside addressing solid waste management issues. The lessons learned from traditional local knowledge and experiences have helped residents adapt to changes, including scaling up flood irrigation and other forms of water harvesting. Recent field studies showed that many people, despite being aware of the risks and the lack of alternatives, adopted unsustainable responses to deal with the water crisis, including drilling new wells or deepening existing ones, and constructing homes in flood-prone valley beds. Faced with dwindling available water levels, many people resorted to using saline water for various domestic purposes, purchasing drinking and cooking water whenever feasible, and utilizing filtration and purification systems. At the same time, there have also been positive practices such as establishing water harvesting tanks and filtration structures to slow water flow and replenish aquifers, as well as rehabilitating irrigation canals.

In agriculture, farmers employ various adaptation methods, including clearing blocked channels of debris, constructing barriers and windbreaks, installing filters, and using plastic piping. Adaptation strategies also involve shifting to less water-intensive crops, planting windbreaks to mitigate wind effects and protect soil, eradicating invasive plant species and trees in agricultural areas, and adjusting crop planting schedules to align with changing rainfall timings. Ultimately, due to declining yields and deteriorating living conditions, many residents are considering abandoning agriculture in favor of pursuing other economic activities.

Lessons Learned
Alongside other populations in the world, Yemenis are suffering from the accelerating pace of global warming. Yemen is characterized by two specific traits: the first is military interventions, ranging from the widespread presence of landmines to the remnants of explosives, which have caused further human and environmental suffering already existing in Yemen. The second trait is the increasing use of solar-powered water pumping systems for agricultural purposes, leading to faster depletion of fossil water basins at the expense of sustainability and basic human needs. In this context, it is clear that the adaptation strategies implemented, which contribute to addressing global warming phenomena, have now become a priority for Yemenis and an integral part of their “natural” lives, regardless of the institutional complacency displayed by official bodies.

Despite Yemen receiving limited development aid in recent times, the war has led to a significant increase in humanitarian assistance, including some development investments, none of which have been designed or utilized perfectly. Two models emerge here: the first model involves support provided to rural communities for repairing and reconstructing agricultural terraces, which targeted needy farmers rather than entire watersheds, leading to the devastation of these terraces at the first rainfall; the second model reflects the lack of an effective role for relief organizations in supporting the distribution of cooking gas, compelling residents to harvest the remaining trees and bushes, exacerbating desertification. Therefore, the lesson learned for supporting international institutions is that having a comprehensive vision, including focusing on environmental issues, is a fundamental basis that should be prioritized and executed within a long-term strategy.

Regarding rural water issues, the exacerbation of water scarcity has strengthened community cooperation while also generating conflicts, and positive responses have improved rainwater harvesting methods, thus replenishing surface water basins. However, the neglect resulting from the war has increased reliance on emergency strategies (truck water delivery) at the expense of providing sustainable infrastructure solutions. The lack of actual knowledge about water availability levels presents an additional barrier. Hence, the lesson learned is that there is no room for “one-size-fits-all” approaches and that all strategies should consider context-specific conditions, including both technical and social aspects, as what works in one context may be a recipe for failure in another.

Neglecting and protecting biodiversity has led to the extinction of plant and animal life or brought them to the brink of extinction. While the importance of ensuring the survival of wildlife and plant species is now better understood, most destructive practices are largely attributed to poverty and desperation rather than neglect or indifference. Therefore, the lesson learned is that alleviating poverty and deprivation will inevitably reduce harmful environmental activities.

Additionally, the environmental crisis in Yemen has demonstrated that there are cases where refraining from any interventions is more effective than actively implementing them. For example, tree planting cannot compensate for what was deforested in a given area. Therefore, rather than expanding the land under cultivation, it is better to enhance irrigation efficiency and develop rain-fed crops specific to poor households.

Reviving traditional indigenous practices is of paramount importance for restoring the environment in Yemen, provided they are adapted to modern climatic, social, and economic conditions. For instance, houses built from mud possess a unique and excellent insulation system, but they require technical adaptations to withstand the new types of prolonged heavy rains impacting them. At the same time, modern technologies can be misleadingly hazardous. The positive expansion in the use of solar energy for local purposes provides a solid foundation for the future, but it could also lead to the extensive use of solar systems for crop irrigation at the expense of smallholders and sustainable local water supplies. Therefore, innovation may have both positive and negative impacts, both of which need to be assessed for maximum effectiveness.

A careful study must be conducted to evaluate the suitability and appropriateness of internationally supported policies for the Yemeni context on both social and technical levels. For instance, there is clear evidence that the process of water supply privatization in urban areas has failed to provide reliable and affordable water and sanitation services for the populace.

Conclusion
As in other parts of the world, regardless of whether a tipping point for climate disaster has been reached, environmental disasters will only worsen in the coming years, as Yemen is among those nations most afflicted by extreme heat, floods, and droughts. There is an urgent need for implementing adaptation measures and mitigation efforts aimed at reducing the life-threatening impacts of global warming. In this regard, citizens can and should take action, even if major infrastructure policies and interventions fall under state jurisdictions; relevant state officials must do something optimally and in a coordinated manner. The time for hollow rhetoric has passed. The priority must be addressing the environmental crisis before competing for or gaining short-term political gains.

The state response has been insufficient: authorities have made little effort to mitigate or address environmental problems. Some may argue that state inaction constitutes a crime as it exposes citizens’ lives to danger and can lead to preventable casualties and deaths. Meanwhile, civilian initiatives (partly supported by local administration and civil society organizations) have played a prominent role in compensating—albeit partially—for political neglect at the highest levels, but they are not enough. The most pressing environmental issues urgently need political decisions or investments in infrastructure, a matter that exceeds the abilities of citizens or community organizations. Moreover, the disparity between individual responsibility and official accountability clearly indicates the urgent need to review governance mechanisms and prioritize them, particularly in the water sector. Thus, local humanitarian needs should take precedence, followed by livestock needs and then industrial sector needs. From this standpoint, allocating a small percentage of the water designated for agriculture to these needs would allow Yemenis to survive and even thrive in Yemen.

Finally, bilateral and international development agencies have also failed to give these issues the attention they deserve by concentrating on short-term humanitarian interventions without addressing pressing, persistent environmental issues. This is not entirely surprising considering the majority of these states’ actions—or lack thereof—in their own countries.

Recommendations
First and foremost, politicians should prioritize environmental issues in their policies, especially those related to water, in the interest of the country’s welfare and future. Yemenis are suffering greatly due to the complacency of local authorities. Without water, life cannot be sustained. In addition, women and marginalized groups should be involved in all recommendations listed below.

Recommendations for Institutions
State representatives—i.e., factions governing different regions in the name of the internationally recognized government—should work to:

1. Establish strong environmental institutions at local and national levels or strengthen existing ones such as the General Authority for Environmental Protection.
2. Follow the detailed steps in the National Disaster Risk Reduction Plan Strategy.
3. Create a national climate emergency center.
4. Develop a national strategy to mitigate climate change impacts, involving the government, civil society, and specialized institutions in its formulation.
5. Establish and implement early warning systems throughout the country, enabling citizens to take necessary counter and adaptation measures in a timely manner before significant climate events occur.

General Environmental Issues
Individuals and groups should use existing natural resources efficiently to maximize benefits for people and the environment.
The education system, government, and civil society organizations should place significant emphasis on raising awareness about the importance of environmental issues and their urgent necessity, including biodiversity awareness campaigns in the media, training local and national administrative personnel, training community leaders, and incorporating environmental issues in school curricula at all levels. All these steps are vital.
Environmental issues should be prioritized in all political negotiations.
Planning agencies must ensure integration and avoid duplication of responsibilities and authorities among stakeholders, with a clear hierarchical structure.
International agencies should fund individual and community environmental protection initiatives that mitigate climate change issues. This should also involve strategies for “preventing harm,” such as refraining from implementing any interventions instead of applying them in ways that can cause significant damage.
Official agencies and local community leaders should enforce existing laws and regulations.
Research institutions, along with the government and funding agencies, should conduct studies on the past and present impacts of global warming at the community level on watersheds and ecological farming areas, as this is critically important for learning relevant lessons and avoiding repeating mistakes.
Government agencies, international donors, and all researchers should consult citizens on potential suggestions to address and mitigate environmental issues.
Stakeholders in the environmental sector should study traditional practices and adapt them to current conditions.
Government institutions and relevant private sector organizations should work to reduce pollution caused by petroleum derivatives and general waste (controlling plastic waste, regulating oil production companies, and developing environmentally friendly waste disposal methods in cities and villages).
Local communities should contribute to “greening” the environment by reducing tree cutting and deforestation for firewood, but instead, they should plant trees in open areas and irrigate them with “gray water,” and government agencies should fund such initiatives.

Water
State representatives and local authorities—the factions ruling different regions in the name of the internationally recognized government—should work to:

1. Issue a decree prioritizing domestic water usage over all other uses, followed by livestock needs and then industrial needs, allowing agricultural irrigation from deep wells only based on sustainability (i.e., ensuring a permanent supply for other uses) after meeting other needs.
2. Establish national regulations and mechanisms to ensure water management at the watershed level, enabling administrative structures to act on clearly defined principles.
3. Enforce water management regulations and prevent illegal and unregulated well drilling, effectively penalizing violators. Regulations should define distances between wells and extraction rates, focusing on resource renewability based on clear principles.
4. Support community committees to empower them to manage water uses, whether domestic or agricultural, effectively, including conflict management practices.
5. Enhance administrative structures and management mechanisms to ensure adequate access to potable water and sanitation services for rural populations while considering the availability and sustainability of water resources within the entire basin.
6. Develop a sustainable plan for saline water desalination for urban and coastal population centers.

Agricultural Sector
Given the importance of rural life and the fact that 70% of Yemenis live in rural areas, with half of the population depending directly or indirectly on agriculture, special attention should be given to this sector.

1. The government, international agencies, and local communities should invest in the repair of agricultural terraces across the watersheds to protect soil, water, and agricultural production.
2. The government and international agencies should prioritize and support rain-fed agriculture through research and development for staple food crops and fast-growing drought-resistant cash crops.
3. Local executive agencies and the government should only permit agricultural irrigation from deep wells if it is sustainable, without depleting the fossil aquifers and impacting their availability for local use.
4. Local executive agencies and the government should regulate and monitor the use of deep water pumping, whether through solar systems or other means, to protect surface water basins, thereby safeguarding water resources for everyone.
5. The government and international funding agencies must ensure a reduction in the cultivation of water-intensive crops such as bananas, khat, and mangoes, prioritizing local needs over export potential.
6. The government and local authorities should specifically support smallholders to increase their income by providing needed advice, technology, and funding to support water harvesting and preservation mechanisms.

Rural and Urban Livelihoods
The government and international funding agencies should study and support the environmental-friendly and climate-adaptive economic activities and projects.
The government and the private sector should work on creating projects that require less water and cause lower degrees of pollution.
The government and urban authorities should take measures to mitigate the effects of increased temperatures on living conditions, such as thermal insulation of homes and creating traditionally built mud brick houses that can withstand continuous heavy rainfall while maintaining their excellent insulation properties.
The government and urban authorities should revive the role of local authorities responsible for water in both small and large cities and provide their staff with necessary technical and administrative training to enhance their capabilities, aimed at raising awareness of climate change impacts, and any relevant mitigation and adaptation measures that need to be taken.