The Negotiation Framework in Diplomatic Relations

Diplomacy, as an essential component of international relations, relies on negotiation as a fundamental tool to achieve mutual understanding and cooperation among states. Throughout history, negotiation has played a pivotal role in resolving conflicts, forging alliances, and advancing national interests without resorting to violence. In an increasingly interconnected and complex world, diplomatic negotiations have evolved to encompass a wide array of issues, from security and trade to environmental and human rights concerns.

The negotiation framework in diplomatic relations serves as a structured approach to managing interactions between states and international actors. It involves a series of processes, strategies, and techniques designed to navigate divergent interests and find common ground. Successful diplomatic negotiations not only foster peaceful coexistence but also strengthen international partnerships and promote stability.

This study aims to explore the key components of the negotiation framework in diplomatic relations, examining theoretical perspectives, practical applications, and case studies that highlight successful and failed negotiations. By understanding the underlying dynamics of diplomatic negotiations, policymakers and practitioners can better equip themselves to address global challenges and build more resilient diplomatic ties.

Negotiation and Negotiation Skills

The term “negotiation” refers to a situation where two or more parties express their positions through a series of processes that are not subject to predetermined conditions regarding a common issue. In this initiative, the demands of each party are presented, opinions are exchanged, perspectives are brought closer together, proposed solutions are harmonized, agreements are adapted, and all available persuasion methods are used by each party to force the other party to accept the solutions or proposals they offer. The negotiation ends with an agreement in which the parties exchange the required materials, and it becomes binding on themselves and others.

This definition implies that there are at least two parties at the negotiation table, as we do not negotiate with ourselves, and there may be more than two. The level of performance in negotiation varies among individuals, with some being excellent, others average, and some below average. This variation is due to differences in personalities and preparations.

Negotiation is a collaborative process to adapt conflicting interests in order to reach a solution that satisfies everyone.

Meaning of the Term: The term “negotiation” is used in Arabic to mean “dialogue” or “discussion.” The term “dialogue” (in the language) has become widely used in the commercial field, specifically in sales and purchase transactions, bidding processes, and tenders. In the speech of Talha ibn al-Zubayr (we negotiated until he extracted from me), the meaning implies that each party seeks to overpower the other, meaning to dominate them. Therefore, we believe that the term has an economic dimension. From this perspective, negotiation (at least in its commercial origin) is defined as: the exchange of perspectives between two or more conflicting parties seeking a resolution to an issue (subject to dispute) through agreement, and they are usually willing to pay a price in exchange for accepting a middle ground between their initial positions.

The diplomatic dictionary, on the other hand, sees negotiation as not only the reason for the existence of the diplomatic representative as the head of the diplomatic mission but also as the essence of diplomacy as a whole. All forms and aspects of diplomacy are subject to the negotiation process. Here, the concept of negotiation approaches the meaning of diplomacy, as it is related to the mechanisms of the state’s external work. This led former American Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to say that diplomacy, in its commonly understood sense, is the process of bringing conflicting perspectives closer together through negotiations.

All issues that can be raised by the relations of the international community or imposed by its changing nature are suitable for being a fertile field for negotiations. For example, the issue of ending a current situation (negotiations between the French Republic and the Algerian National Liberation Front in the city of Evian in 1962), or to limit the escalation of a situation that may develop in a direction that threatens international security and peace (negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union, known as SALT 1 and SALT 2, to limit the spread of strategic weapons), or to put an end to an armed conflict (Paris negotiations in 1975 between the United States and the leadership of the Vietnamese Liberation Army), or to delineate borders (whether land, sea, or related to the continental shelf), or to regulate customs matters, or to discuss the extradition of suspects, or the convicted, or prisoner exchange talks (Iraq-Iran, Kuwait-Iraq).

Negotiations may take on a specific nature, where negotiation takes place on a specific issue, but with all its complexities. Examples include the International Conference on Water and the Environment (Dublin 1992), the United Nations Conference on Social Development (Copenhagen 1994), the United Nations Conference on Population and Development (Cairo 1995), the United Nations Conference on Women (Beijing 1996), the Conference on Human Settlements (Istanbul 1996), or the collective negotiations related to the establishment of a permanent international criminal court (Rome 1998).

Negotiations may take place between a state and an international organization regarding the headquarters. For example, negotiations between the Arab League and the Egyptian state, negotiations between the United Nations and the United States, negotiations between OPEC and Austria, negotiations between the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) and Kuwait, negotiations between the World Trade Organization and Switzerland, negotiations between the European Union and Belgium, negotiations between the Islamic Conference and Saudi Arabia, and negotiations between the Organization of African Unity (African Union) and Ethiopia.

The issue of negotiation is a dynamic (ongoing) and complex process. Given this dynamic nature, it is usually within the competence of the executive authority and generally takes on a diplomatic framework (through the system of rules of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Law). It is carried out by officials, diplomats, and experts. However, negotiation may take place between higher-ranking officials than just diplomatic officials, such as those responsible for different sectors in the executive authority (ministers, secretaries, state secretaries, heads of government, or heads of state) either during their travels (on work visits) with the intention of negotiating, or during their participation in international or regional meetings (Mauritania and Israel on the sidelines of the Barcelona Conference on Cooperation and Partnership in the Mediterranean, November 24-26, 1995). However, this privilege is no longer limited to these official individuals, as experts, technicians, and consultants (to varying degrees) often participate in negotiations. Technocrats have started to directly perform roles that are growing and expanding due to the direction of international relations towards specialization and complexity, as well as due to the knowledge revolutions that have affected all fields, in addition to the increasing need for the phenomenon of international organization, which naturally reveals broader fields of work for experts (International Atomic Energy Agency, World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization, International Air Transport Association, World Trade Organization, etc.).

Nevertheless, negotiation in all its forms and subjects does not deviate from the following academic hypotheses in terms of arranging its legal outcomes:

1. If the treaty is bilateral, it takes place directly through the authorized instruments and authorities, i.e., between the person responsible for managing the foreign affairs of one state (Foreign Minister, Secretary of Foreign Affairs) and the negotiating representative of another state (at approximately the same level), assisted by experts from both sides when needed. Whether the negotiations take place between the two parties only or under the supervision of other parties (organizations or states), and whether these negotiations are self-initiated or in response to international pressure or the implementation of Security Council resolutions, it does not affect the bilateral nature of the negotiation.

It may be obvious in this regard that negotiations have a meaning and a purpose; otherwise, they would be outside the scope of interest of international law. This is confirmed by what was stated in the final draft agreed upon on August 19, 1993, regarding the Declaration of Principles on Palestinian Self-Government Arrangements and the formation of the Palestinian transitional self-government, specifically in Article 1 under the heading “Objective of the Negotiations,” which states that the objective of the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations within the framework of the Middle East peace process is, among other things, the establishment of a transitional Palestinian self-governing authority representing the elected Palestinian Council in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, for a transitional period not exceeding five years, leading to a final settlement based on Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338.

Despite the fact that other parties, in addition to the two main parties (the United States, the Russian Federation, and some concerned parties), witnessed these negotiations and signed the Declaration of Principles, the nature of the negotiation, and therefore the agreement reached, remained bilateral.

While the general principle is based on the freedom of individuals under international law to negotiate on all subjects of interest to the negotiating parties, the Declaration of Principles included in the Gaza-Jericho Agreement (1993) specifically limited the negotiation powers of the Palestinian Authority, which is a departure from the general rule and a violation of the principle of sovereignty, including the legitimacy of negotiation and the legality of the subject of negotiation. Article 6 under the heading “Powers and Responsibilities of the Palestinian Authority” in paragraph (A), subparagraphs (b) and (c), states that: The Palestine Liberation Organization may conduct negotiations and sign agreements with states or international organizations on behalf of the Palestinian Authority in the following cases only:

a. Economic agreements as specifically stated in Annex 4 of this agreement. b. Agreements with donor countries for the purpose of implementing arrangements for providing aid to the Palestinian Authority. c. Agreements for the purpose of implementing regional development plans included in Annex 4 of the Declaration of Principles or in agreements that fall within the framework of multilateral negotiations. d. Cultural, scientific, and educational agreements.

This text is considered a departure from the established general principles of international law (treaty-based, customary), and it can be said that it is void ab initio for violating a peremptory norm of international law and contradicting the idea of the international legal order.

2. If the treaty is multilateral, the negotiation usually takes place within the framework of an international meeting that may take the form of a conference or international gathering.
3. If the treaty is collective, the negotiations are characterized by their long duration and usually take place in an international conference named after the subject of the agreement.

Main Elements of Negotiation

First: The Negotiation Position: Negotiation is a dynamic position, meaning it is based on movement, action, reaction, positive and negative, influence or being influenced. Negotiation is a flexible position that requires immense abilities for quick and continuous adaptation and complete harmonization with the variables surrounding the negotiation process. In general, the negotiation position includes a set of elements that must:

1. Coherence: This requires that there be coherence at the overall level of the elements of the issue being negotiated, meaning that the negotiation position becomes a coherent whole, even if its elements and details are easily accessible.
2. Composition: The negotiation position must be composed of particles and elements into which it can be divided, and which can be easily addressed in their individual framework, as well as in their overall framework.
3. Recognizability and Distinguishability: The negotiation position must be characterized by the ability to recognize and distinguish it without any ambiguity or confusion, and without losing any of its parts or dimensions or aspects.
4. Spatial and Temporal Extent: This refers to the historical stage in which the negotiation takes place and the geographical location that the issue encompasses when being negotiated.
5. Complexity: The negotiation position is a complex position, where a set of factors interact within it, and it has many dimensions and aspects from which this position is formed. Therefore, it is necessary to be well-versed in all of this in order to deal with this position skillfully and successfully.
6. Ambiguity: Some refer to this position as “doubt,” where the negotiation position must be surrounded by shades of doubt and relative ambiguity that drive the negotiator to reduce the circle of uncertainty by gathering all the information and data that ensure the clarification of the negotiation, especially since doubt is always related to the intentions, motives, orientations, and beliefs behind the other negotiating party.

Second: Parties to the Negotiation: Negotiation usually takes place between two parties, but its scope may expand to include more than two parties due to the intertwining and conflicting interests among the negotiating parties. From this perspective, the parties to the negotiation can also be divided into direct parties, which are the parties that actually sit at the negotiation table and directly engage in the negotiation process, and indirect parties, which are the parties that form pressure forces due to considerations of interest or have a close or distant relationship with the negotiation process.

Third: The Negotiable Issue: There must be a specific issue or subject that represents the axis of the negotiation process and the field in which the negotiators engage. The issue may be a general humanitarian issue or a specific personal issue, and it may be a social, economic, political, or moral issue, etc. Through the issue being negotiated, the negotiation objective is determined, as well as the purpose of each stage of the negotiation, and even the points, parts, and elements that need to be addressed in each stage, as well as the tactics, tools, and strategies that must be used in each stage.

Fourth: The Negotiation Objective: No negotiation process takes place without a fundamental objective that it seeks to achieve or reach, and for which plans and policies are set. Based on the negotiation objective, the progress of the negotiation efforts in the negotiation sessions is measured, and precise calculations are made, and deep analyses are conducted for each step.

The general or final negotiation objective is divided into stage-based and partial objectives according to the importance of each and their connection to achieving the overall or general or final objective.

On the other hand, the negotiation objective usually revolves around achieving any of the following:

• Undertaking a specific action agreed upon by the parties.
• Refraining from undertaking a specific action agreed upon by the parties not to do.
• Achieving a combination of the two previous objectives.

Conditions of Negotiation

First: Negotiation Power: Negotiation power is related to the limits or extent of the authority and mandate granted to the negotiating individual and the framework of movement allowed for them without exceeding or breaching it in relation to the subject or issue being negotiated.

Second: Negotiation Information: It is for the negotiation team to possess the information that enables them to answer the following questions: Who are we? Who is our opponent? What do we want? How can we achieve what we want? Can we achieve what we want in one go? Or do we need to achieve it in stages and break it down to reach it in phases? And if that works, what are those stage-based objectives, and how to achieve them? What do we need in terms of support, tools, means, and individuals to reach those objectives?

Based on this information, a negotiation program is set with specific tasks and objectives, and it is provided with the capabilities and resources.

Third: Negotiation Capability: This condition is primarily related to the members of the team and the level of skill, proficiency, and competence that they possess. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the negotiation capability of this team, which can be achieved through the following:

• Good selection of team members from individuals who possess the ability, skill, desire, qualities, and specifications that team members should have.
• Achieving harmony, compatibility, and continuous adaptation among team members to become a homogeneous unit, with defined tasks, without any conflict or division in opinion, inclinations, or desires.
• Training, educating, honing, motivating, and preparing team members to a high level, during which they are provided with all the detailed data and information related to the negotiable issue.
• Careful and diligent monitoring of the negotiation team’s performance and any developments that occur to its members.
• Providing all the material and non-material facilitations that facilitate the negotiation process.

Fourth: Shared Desire: This condition is primarily related to the presence of a genuine shared desire among the negotiating parties to resolve their problems or disputes through negotiation, and the conviction of each that negotiation is the only or the best means to resolve this dispute or put an end to it.

Fifth: Surrounding Climate: The negotiation climate is related to two main aspects:

1. The negotiable issue itself: In this aspect, the negotiable issue must be hot, and the hotter the issue, the more likely it is that the negotiation will receive the attention and participation of the different parties and be effective?
2. The interests must be balanced between the negotiating parties: To create an effective climate, the negotiation must take place within a framework of balanced interests and powers between the negotiating parties so that the negotiation can play its role, and its results are more stable, acceptable, just, and respected among these parties. If there is no such balance, there will be no negotiation in the true sense, but rather surrender, submission, and oppression of one of the parties that does not have the necessary power to support its right or to prove it or to impose its opinion and force the other party to accept it, respect it, and act upon it or upon what will be reached through negotiation.

Steps of Negotiation

The practical negotiation has practical steps that must be taken and followed, and these steps represent a logical cumulative series, each of which is carried out with the aim of producing specific results that are used in preparing and implementing the next step. The accumulation of each stage is built upon what was obtained from the outcome of the previous stage and what was utilized through negotiation and acquired during the current stage itself before moving on to the new next stage. In this way, the practical negotiation process takes the form of a cumulative operational negotiation effort, so that the outputs of each stage become the inputs for the following stage, and so on.

First Step: Identifying and Diagnosing the Negotiable Issue: This is the first step of the negotiation process, where it is necessary to know, identify, and diagnose the issue being negotiated and to know all its elements, variable factors, and fixed foundations. It is also necessary to identify each party to the issue and with whom the negotiation will take place. The negotiation position must be accurately determined for each party to the negotiation, and what each party wants or aims for from the negotiation must be known.

Preliminary negotiations or discussions must be conducted to explore the intentions and orientations of this party and to accurately determine its negotiation position. After this determination, a point or points of meeting or common understanding are reached.

It is also necessary to identify the points of agreement between the negotiating parties to become the common ground or the common basis for starting the negotiation process and to help identify the points of common interest that connect the negotiating parties.

Then, the center of the circle of common interest or agreement between the parties is determined to represent the point of reference in dealing with and within this circle, where in the negotiation, this center is gradually moved to expand the points of agreement that the other party agrees to and become a real gain.

Preliminary negotiations are used in this regard to determine the negotiation positions and to know the truth and intentions of the other party, in addition to:

• Changing the orientations and motives behind the other party.
• Gaining the support and endorsement of the other party and the forces influencing it.
• Pushing the other party to engage in a certain behavior according to a specific plan.
• Benefiting from the other party’s reaction.

In general, preliminary negotiations determine the points of meeting and disagreement between the parties and clarify the dimensions of each. Then, the most extreme points for each party can be determined, which cannot be influenced and from which they will not back down at least in the current period. And the points that are more acceptable to them or the common meeting point that they agree to without hesitation. Then, the focus is on moving away from the most extreme points of disagreement and dealing only with those points that fall within the swinging area between agreement and objection, and which can be successfully and easily gained through negotiation.

Second Step: Preparing the Climate for Negotiation: This step is an ongoing and extended step that covers and includes all the other periods until the final agreement is reached and the gains resulting from the negotiation process are reaped.

In this stage, each of the negotiating parties tries to create an atmosphere of responsiveness and understanding with the other party in order to form a preliminary impression of it and discover its strategy that it will follow in the negotiations and its reactions to our negotiation initiatives and efforts.

This stage is usually short and informal, and it is usually limited to club meetings or introductory parties where compliments and greetings are exchanged.

Third Step: Acceptance of the Opponent for Negotiation: This is a fundamental process among the processes and steps of negotiation for the acceptance of the other party and the acceptance of sitting at the negotiation table. Then, the negotiations succeed or become easier, especially with the conviction of the other party that negotiation is the only way, but also the possible way to resolve the existing dispute or to obtain the desired benefit or to reap the gains and advantages that it seeks to reach. We must ensure the sincerity of the other party’s desire and the truth of its intentions, and that its acceptance of negotiation is not a maneuver or to gain time or to divert from using other means.

Fourth Step: Preparing and Executing the Actual Negotiation Process:

• Selecting and preparing the negotiation team members and training them to carry out the required negotiation process and giving them the letter of authorization that specifies their negotiation powers.
• Developing negotiation strategies and choosing the appropriate negotiation policies for each stage of the negotiation.
• Agreeing on the negotiation agenda, and what it includes in terms of subjects, points, or elements that will be negotiated and the priorities for addressing each of them in the negotiation.
• Choosing the negotiation location, preparing and equipping it, and making it suitable and appropriate for the negotiation sessions, and providing all the necessary facilities for it.

Fifth Step: Starting the Actual Negotiation Sessions: This step includes the fundamental processes without which negotiation does not take place:

Selecting the appropriate negotiation tactics in terms of addressing each element of the negotiable issue during the negotiation of the issue and within each negotiation session.

• Utilizing the appropriate negotiation tools, especially preparing the documents, data, arguments, and supporting evidence for our perspectives and opposing the perspectives of the other party.
• Exercising negotiation pressure on the other party, whether inside or outside the negotiation session. These pressures include factors such as:
• Time.- Cost.- Effort.- Failure to reach a result.- Media pressure.- Psychological pressure.

• Exchanging proposals and presenting perspectives within the broad lines of the negotiation process and at the same time studying the presented options and selectively choosing from them.
• Utilizing all other factors that influence the other party to force it to take a certain position or engage in a certain behavior required by our winning of the negotiable issue or achieving a victory or reaching an agreement regarding it or regarding one of its elements or particles.

Sixth Step: Reaching the Final Agreement and Signing It: No agreement has any legal value if it is not signed in the form of a signed and binding agreement for the negotiating parties. It is necessary to ensure that the agreement is comprehensive and detailed, containing all aspects, taking into account considerations of form and content, and ensuring that the choice of words and expressions does not create any obstacles during the actual implementation of the negotiation agreement.

Components of the Negotiation Strategy:

First: Principle of Cooperation: Advocates of this strategy believe that effective negotiation is not a confrontation and does not necessarily involve hostility or enmity. They believe that negotiation is a means to reach an agreement, and these individuals are naturally inclined towards middle ground solutions.

Second: Principle of Win-Win: There is no winner or loser, but rather mutual satisfaction and victory for both parties. This is the correct concept of negotiation, which is based on considering it cooperation rather than confrontation. It is an opportunity for joint work between two parties to achieve a goal that neither can accomplish alone.

Third: Expanding the Possibilities or Enlarging the Pie: The successful negotiator works to expand the scope of the negotiation and extend it to new areas that include gains, concessions, compensations, or reducing the cost of losses.

Fourth: Long-Term Relationships are Important: The successful negotiator works to convince the other party that the negotiations with them are not the end of their relationship, as it is certain that there will be new processes and deals that will bring them together.

Approaches and Strategies of Negotiation

First: Strategies of the Common Interest Approach: This approach is based on a cooperative relationship between two or more parties, where each party works to deepen and increase this cooperation and reap its benefits for the benefit of all parties. The strategies of this approach are:

1. Integration Strategy: This is the development of the relationship between the negotiating parties to the extent that each becomes a complement to the other in everything, to the point where they may become one person, integrated in interests, benefits, and legal entity at times, with the aim of maximizing the benefit from the opportunities available to each. This strategy can be implemented through: Backward integration.

• Forward integration.
• Horizontal integration.

2. Strategy of Developing Current Cooperation: This negotiation strategy is based on achieving a set of high-level objectives that work to develop the common interest between the negotiating parties and strengthen the aspects of cooperation between them. This strategy can be implemented through:

• Expanding the areas of cooperation: This strategy is implemented by convincing the negotiating parties to extend the scope of cooperation to new areas that their cooperation has not reached before.
• Upgrading the level of cooperation: This strategy is based on upgrading the cooperative stage that the negotiating parties are experiencing, especially since cooperation goes through several stages, the most important of which are the following: The stage of mutual understanding or getting to know the interests of all parties. . The stage of agreeing on the opinion or settling the interests. . The stage of working on implementing it or the stage of implementing the common benefit. . The stage of sharing its proceeds or income or the stage of implementing the common benefit. In all these stages, the negotiation effort plays an important role in developing cooperation between the negotiating parties and upgrading the stage they are going through.

3. Strategy of Deepening the Existing Relationship: This strategy is based on reaching a higher degree of cooperation between two or more parties united by a common interest.
4. Strategy of Expanding the Scope of Cooperation by Extending it to New Areas: This strategy is primarily based on the long historical reality between the negotiating parties in terms of the existing cooperation between them, the multiplicity of its means, and the multiplicity of its stages according to the circumstances and variables it has gone through, according to the capabilities and capacities of each. There are two methods for this strategy:
5. Expanding the scope of cooperation by extending it to a new time frame: This method is based on the agreement between the negotiating parties on a new future time period, or intensifying and increasing cooperation and reaping cooperation during this upcoming period.
6. Expanding the scope of cooperation by extending it to a new geographical area: This method is implemented by agreeing to move cooperation to a new geographical location.

Second: Strategies of the Conflict Approach: Despite the fact that all those who practice conflict strategies in their negotiations, whether at the individual level of people or at the collective level, and their adoption and reliance on them, they always practice them secretly and covertly, in fact, in their practice of negotiation with the conflict approach, they declare that they want to deepen the common interests. As a large part of the components of these strategies relies on deception and pretense.

1- Strategy of Exhaustion: This strategy is based on the following:

1. Exhausting the time of the other party. This is done by prolonging the negotiation period to cover the longest possible time without the negotiations reaching any significant results of value. The following method is used to achieve this: Negotiating about the principle of negotiation itself and the possibility of using it and the other party’s readiness to deal with it and the possibility of implementing its commitments that can be reached.

• Negotiating in another round or rounds about the appropriate timing and date for conducting the negotiation rounds that have been agreed upon or are being agreed upon.
• Negotiating in another round or rounds about the location of the negotiation or the possible negotiation locations and the alternative locations.
• Negotiating in new rounds about the subjects that will be negotiated.
• Negotiating about each subject of the subjects that have been prioritized, and in light of each subject, it can be divided into elements and branches that are dealt with in one or more negotiation sessions.

2. Exhausting the effort of the other party to the greatest possible extent. This is done by intensifying and stimulating its energies and mobilizing all its experiences and specializations and occupying them with the formal elements of the negotiable issue that have no value by: Raising fabricated legal obstacles around each element of the negotiable issues and around the terminology of each subject and the expressions, sentences, words, and phrases used to phrase the expressions and names of each negotiation subject.

• Setting a busy program of receptions, parties, press conferences, introductory parties, and visits to historical sites.
• Increasing attention to highly complex technical aspects such as engineering, geographical, commercial, economic, environmental, and military aspects…etc., and postponing the decision on them until the opinions of the experts and technicians who will be approached and consulted about them are obtained, and then the negotiation sessions end without a decisive result, but rather there are many pending matters that have not been decided, most of which are formal matters, and the substantive and other formal matters are related to and dependent on them at times.

3. Exhausting the money of the other party. This is done by increasing its spending rates and accommodation costs and the fees of its consultants throughout the negotiation process, in addition to what this represents in terms of wasting other financial and economic opportunities that it could have obtained if it had not sat with us at the negotiation table and been occupied with it. 2- Strategy of Dispersal (Fragmentation): This is one of the most important negotiation strategies of the conflict approach, as conflicting parties rely on it to a great extent if they sit at the negotiation table. This strategy is based on examining, diagnosing, and identifying the most important points of weakness and strength in the negotiation team sent by the other party for negotiation and identifying their affiliations, beliefs, educational and technical levels, income levels, and everything that may characterize them into specific groups and classes in advance.

Based on these characteristics, a cunning policy is drawn up to fragment and break the unity and coherence of the negotiation team sent by the other party to negotiate with us and destroy its unity, alliance, and cohesion, and to disrespect it, so that it becomes a fragmented, conflicting team with disagreements and conflicts among its members, and then their efforts become uncoordinated.

This strategy is distinguished by being one of the organized defense strategies in the event of being subjected to intense negotiation pressure or a new negotiation initiative that we did not expect and did not calculate for.

3- Strategy of Tightening Control (Subjugation): The negotiation process according to the conflict approach is a fierce battle or a smart mental match between two parties. Therefore, this strategy is based on mobilizing all the capabilities that ensure complete control over the negotiation sessions. By:

• The ability to diversify, shape, modify, and change the negotiation initiatives presented at the negotiation table so that we have a head start in dealing with the other party and initiating the movement, in addition to forcing the other party to deal with an initiative of our making, about which we know everything, and then it has to follow the path we have drawn for it, which makes it easy for us to control it.
• The ability to move quickly, respond instinctively and immediately, and be always ready to negotiate as soon as the other party expresses its desire to do so, to deny it the opportunity to take the initiative and control the negotiation process from start to finish.
• Ensuring that the other party remains in the position of the subordinate, who has to remain still, waiting for the signal we give it, or whose movement is within the framework set to surround it. 4- Strategy of Encroachment (Organized Invasion): This is a strategy used regardless of the scarcity or abundance of information about the other party with whom the negotiation conflict is taking place.

According to this strategy, gradual negotiation is used step by step to become an organized invasion of the other party, where the process begins with breaking through the barrier of silence or scarcity of information by gathering all possible data and information through preliminary negotiations with this party. Then, identifying the most important areas in which it has dangerous competitive advantages that threaten its products, and negotiating with it to leave the field for us in them and to move to other areas that consume and exhaust its capabilities and resources. At the same time, gradually pushing it to retreat from the traditional markets it dealt with until it completely loses its external markets and its work is limited to within its country.

In the next stage, the market in its country is penetrated through joint manufacturing contracts that include supplying all the components of the assembled or manufactured product through us, and its work is limited to establishing some assembly lines.

In a later stage, it turns its attention away from these lines to limit its work to distribution, and then in a subsequent stage, we take over the distribution. Negotiating according to this strategy requires extraordinary capabilities from the negotiation team.

5- Strategy of Self-Destruction (Suicide): Each party to the negotiation has: goals, hopes, dreams, and aspirations, all of which face: determinants, obstacles, problems, and difficulties, and the more intense these obstacles are, the greater the despair of this party and its feeling of the impossibility of reaching them, and that no matter how much effort it exerts, it will not reach them. Here, it must choose between two alternatives:

• Giving up these ambitions and goals and settling for what can be achieved from them and considering it the final goal.
• Searching for new, unseen, or currently unimagined means that enable it to achieve these goals in the future.

Negotiation Policies

These policies can be briefly addressed as follows: Policy of Negotiation Penetration / Policy of Iron Wall.

1. Policy of Negotiation Deepening (Emphasis) / Policy of Negotiation Obscuration (Doubt).
2. Policy of Negotiation Expansion and Spread / Policy of Negotiation Restriction and Siege.
3. Policy of Negotiation Tension Events / Policy of Negotiation Relaxation.
4. Policy of Negotiation Attack / Policy of Negotiation Defense.
5. Policy of Gradual Addressing of the Negotiable Issue / Policy of Single Negotiation Deal.
6. Policy of Direct and Frank Confrontation / Policy of Evasion and Circumvention.
7. Policy of Negotiation Development / Policy of Negotiation Freezing.

Characteristics and Specifications of the Professional Negotiator There are a number of characteristics and specifications that must be present in a professional negotiator in order for them to perform their negotiation function well. These characteristics complement each other to form the general and specific framework for the personality of the negotiator and make them suitable for carrying out the negotiation process that relies on them. It can be said that every negotiation process requires certain characteristics and skills in the person who carries it out, and this may explain to us that every negotiation situation requires a specific way of dealing with it and handling it. From this, the negotiation process has become a multi-faceted and multi-dimensional professional activity that involves a certain specialization.

Principles of Negotiation Summarized in 22 principles:

1. Always be ready to negotiate, at any time.
2. Never negotiate without being prepared.
3. Maintain constant stability and calmness of nerves.
4. Do not underestimate the opponent or the party you are negotiating with.
5. Do not rush to make a decision and gain time to think.
6. Listen more than you speak, and if you speak, do not say anything of value during the preliminary negotiations.
7. There is no permanent friendship, but there are always permanent interests.
8. Believe in the sincerity and justice of the negotiable issue.
9. Caution and discretion and do not reveal everything you have at once. No one keeps your secrets except your lips.
10. Base your analyses and then your decisions on the facts and real events, and they should not be based on wishes.
11. Negotiate from a position of strength.
12. Be convinced of your opinion before convincing others of it.
13. Use indirect methods in negotiation and gain negotiation points whenever possible.
14. The necessity of preparing the other party and mentally preparing them to accept being convinced of the opinion you adopt.
15. Calmness of nerves and smiling are the key to success in negotiation.
16. Constant optimism and facing fierce storms and unjust criticisms with calmness, absolute tranquility, and rational reasonableness.
17. Continuous renewal in the ways and methods of addressing the subjects being negotiated and in the style of work of the negotiation team.
18. Do not start the negotiation dialogue with a provocative sentence or an aggressive look or a movement that expresses hatred, challenge, and aggression.
19. Dress neatly, harmoniously, dignifiedly, and respectfully in all negotiation processes and in all its formal sessions.
20. Enjoy the negotiation work.
21. No despair in negotiation and no absolute, final, and permanent defeat in it.
22. Do not be deceived by the appearances of things and always be cautious of their opposites.

Conclusion

Negotiation remains a cornerstone of diplomatic relations, shaping the way states and international actors interact to resolve conflicts, build alliances, and promote common interests. As globalization and interdependence deepen, the complexity of diplomatic negotiations has grown, requiring more sophisticated strategies and adaptable frameworks to address multifaceted issues.

The negotiation framework in diplomatic relations is not merely a theoretical construct but a practical tool that guides diplomats and policymakers in navigating divergent interests. Through careful planning, strategic communication, and cultural sensitivity, negotiators can bridge gaps and create lasting agreements that uphold peace and cooperation.

Studying successful and unsuccessful negotiations reveals valuable insights into the factors that influence outcomes, such as the role of power dynamics, the importance of mutual trust, and the need for flexibility in adapting to changing circumstances. By learning from past experiences and continuously refining negotiation strategies, the international community can enhance its capacity to address pressing global challenges through dialogue rather than confrontation.

Ultimately, fostering effective diplomatic negotiations requires a commitment to mutual respect, open communication, and a willingness to compromise. In doing so, diplomats can build more resilient relationships that transcend political differences and contribute to global stability

References

Books:

1. “Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In” by Roger Fisher, William Ury, and Bruce Patton
   • A classic guide to principled negotiation, emphasizing mutual gains and collaborative problem-solving.
2. “Diplomacy” by Henry Kissinger
   • Offers insights into the practice of diplomacy from one of the most influential diplomats of the 20th century.
3. “The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations” by John Baylis, Steve Smith, and Patricia Owens
   • Provides a comprehensive overview of international relations theories and practices.
4. “Negotiation Analysis: The Science and Art of Collaborative Decision Making” by Howard Raiffa, John Richardson, and David Metcalfe
   • Combines decision theory and negotiation analysis to offer practical insights into complex negotiations.
5. “International Negotiation: Analysis, Approaches, Issues” by Victor A. Kremenyuk
   • Examines different negotiation approaches and strategies with real-world examples.
6. “The Art of Negotiation: How to Improvise Agreement in a Chaotic World” by Michael Wheeler
   • Focuses on adaptive negotiation techniques for unpredictable situations.
7. “International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity” by Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki, and Steve Smith
   • Covers major theories of international relations, useful for understanding the context of diplomatic negotiations.

Academic Journals and Articles:

1. Journal of Conflict Resolution (SAGE Publications)
   • Covers a wide range of topics related to negotiation, conflict management, and peace studies.
2. International Negotiation: A Journal of Theory and Practice (Brill)
   • Focuses on negotiation processes and techniques in an international context.
3. International Studies Quarterly (Oxford Academic)
   • Publishes research on international relations and global diplomacy.
4. Foreign Affairs (Council on Foreign Relations)
   • Articles and essays by experts on diplomacy, global strategy, and negotiation.

Online Resources:

1. Harvard Program on Negotiation (PON)
   • Offers case studies, teaching materials, and negotiation research papers.
2. United Nations Digital Library
   • Access to diplomatic documents and international negotiation case studies.

Would you like help finding more specific resources or case studies?