The International Competition for Natural Resources in Africa After World War II

Introduction:

Oil is considered one of the most important energy sources worldwide, despite the early development of alternative energy resources. In the age of globalization, oil remains the backbone of the global economy, relied upon by both developed and developing nations. Advanced countries continue to depend on oil, especially in the transportation sector, which is crucial for major economies that consume fuel excessively, as well as for emerging nations that regard oil as a primary energy source. Consequently, the issue of ensuring oil security has become a vital interest for all nations.

This study is based on the hypothesis that the importance of oil in international relations has not diminished, given the growth of the global economy despite high prices during economic crises. Additionally, Africa’s diverse natural resources have encouraged numerous types of conflicts. Thus, ensuring access to oil and securing its supply are influenced by the political and economic stability of producing countries. It is well-known that oil and gas production and reserves are fundamental factors in determining international priorities in exploiting production areas and affecting the dynamics of conflict and competition between major oil-consuming nations.

I. International Competition and Energy Security

1. International Competition for Oil:

The importance of oil increased with the introduction of fuel-powered warships in the early twentieth century, as the shift from coal to oil provided British ships with significant advantages in speed and endurance. At the same time, this posed a new problem for Britain, as it became reliant on oil imports or control over supply sources, given its significant coal resources yet limited oil reserves. Thus, oil is deemed a crucial resource for national security, where deprivation of supplies could lead to military force when facing threats to supply.

World War II opened the door for warring nations to fight for oil, particularly with the American embargo on oil exports to Japan, prompting the latter to attack Pearl Harbor in late 1941. In Europe, Germany’s dire need for oil propelled its invasion of Russia in 1941, with the primary objective being the occupation of Soviet oil fields in Baku, Azerbaijan.

Following the nationalization of many global companies, control over oil shifted from these companies to producing countries. For the first time, OPEC successfully raised oil prices in 1971, and by 1973, oil prices had quadrupled due to increasing demand. Arab oil-producing countries effectively wielded oil as a political weapon during the October 1973 war, when Arab oil ministers decided to reduce production by 5% monthly and cut oil supplies to the United States and the Netherlands due to their governments’ biased support for Israel.

2. Securing Energy Sources:

Since the end of the Cold War, U.S. attention has focused on preventing Eurasia’s ties with the oil-rich Middle East, particularly Iraq and Iran, which were seen as outside America’s sphere of influence. Concerned about the potential nuclear capabilities of these nations, U.S. policy aimed to ensure that Middle Eastern and former Soviet Union resources, which could rival Western resource wealth, were not controlled by states capable of challenging U.S. interests. Thus, the U.S. has sought to redeploy its presence in the Middle East.

Geographically close to African oil, Europe is heavily reliant on North African oil, especially Libya, which exports 70% of its production to Europe. The importance of the Libyan oil industry increased significantly after sanctions were lifted in 2003.

European nations and the United States are competing for African oil, notably Nigeria, as Britain views itself as first in line to benefit from Nigerian oil due to its historical colonial ties. Britain relies on 10% of Nigerian oil.

II. Oil and Gas Discoveries in Africa (Reserves – Production)

After the Suez Crisis, oil exploration in Africa accelerated, reaching new areas such as Libya, Angola, Egypt, Senegal, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Somalia, and Tunisia, with the number of drilling rigs totaling 162 by 1962. Significant oil discoveries occurred in Algeria in 1956, Nigeria, Gabon, and Libya in 1958, with smaller quantities found in Angola in 1960 and Tunisia in 1966.

1. Oil Reserves and Production in Africa:

A. Oil Reserves:

Global proven oil reserves were estimated at approximately 1,259 billion barrels in 2008, with most of this reserve concentrated in three main regions: the Middle East (60%), Europe (11.4%), and Africa (10%). Africa’s oil reserves are estimated at 125.6 billion barrels, with an expected lifespan of around 30 years based on current production rates.

B. Oil Production:

Global oil production is around 84 million barrels per day, with the Middle East being the largest producing region at 26.2 million barrels daily, accounting for 32% of global production. Africa’s oil production reaches 10.3 million barrels per day, representing 12.4% of global output. This shows that Africa has 10% of global oil reserves while contributing to 12.4% of global production.

2. Gas Reserves and Production in Africa:

A. Gas Reserves:

The global gas reserve is approximately 185 trillion cubic meters, with an estimated lifespan of 60 years. The Middle East holds about 41% of the world’s gas reserves, followed by Eastern Europe at 34%, while Africa ranks third with an estimated 14,660 trillion cubic meters, or 7.9% globally.

B. Gas Production:

Global gas production is estimated at 3,065 billion cubic meters, with Europe (Eastern Europe) producing 35.5% of total output, followed by North America with 26.7%. The Middle East accounts for 12.4% of production, with Russia being one of the largest producers, followed closely by the United States. Africa produces about 7% of global gas output, roughly 215 billion cubic meters as of 2008, a figure that has seen slow growth in subsequent years.

IV. The Impact of International Influence and Resource Conflicts in Africa

Numerous major powers have vied for Africa’s resources, turning the continent into a free-for-all rich in raw materials. These nations sought to exert control over regions they believed had advantages supporting their continuous growth and the maintenance of their power, leading to varying periods of dominance over African resources amid competition among the world’s great powers, particularly Europe, the United States, and China.

1. Europe:

Africa suffered long under colonial rule, which divided the continent based on colonial expeditions dominant in the 19th and early 20th centuries, categorizing it into six sections:

• The section under French rule, known as Francophone countries, included Mauritania, Guinea, Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Niger, Central Africa, Gabon, Cameroon, and Madagascar.
• The British-controlled regions, known as Anglophone countries or members of the British Commonwealth, included Nigeria, Ghana, The Gambia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, and Uganda. Egypt was the first Arab African nation subjected to full military occupation by Britain in 1882.
• Italian spheres of influence were limited and included small areas such as Italian Somalia, Libya, briefly Ethiopia, and Eritrea.
• German influence was short-lived due to Germany’s defeat in World War I, leading to a division of its minor colonies among Britain, France, Belgium, and South Africa, covering Togo, Cameroon, Namibia, Tanzania, and Rwanda.
• Spanish territory included Equatorial Guinea (then known as Spanish Guinea), the Sahara region, the Canary Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla.
• Portuguese colonial areas covered Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique, and the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.

2. The United States:

From the emergence of the United States on the world stage until World War II, American foreign policy towards Africa was marked by neglect and disinterest. However, post-1945, the containment of communist expansion became central to U.S. foreign policy in Africa from 1947 to 1989.

Following the fall of the Berlin Wall and George H.W. Bush’s presidency, there was no clear foreign policy aimed at Africa, which seemed less significant geographically following the Soviet Union’s collapse.

By 1998, however, U.S. foreign policy began to take shape, with President Clinton’s administration aiming to establish a new American-African partnership, recognizing Africa’s security importance due to its vast resources and relevance to global power dynamics, especially in North Africa and Middle Eastern relations.

American interest in Africa seeks to contain the influence of major powers and recognizes the continent as a fertile ground for investment and primary resource markets. The shifts in U.S. and French approaches to Africa in the post-Cold War atmosphere highlighted real competition between the two nations, notably evident during the Rwandan civil war in 1994. Nonetheless, there has been some cooperation and coordination between American and European actions regarding African issues.

Consequently, it became essential for U.S. strategy to encompass Africa, particularly oil and gas resources, regarded as the last region with vast reserves. Experts estimate that African oil accounts for 8-9% of total global reserves, about 100 billion barrels, with many oil fields spread across the continent’s numerous nations and coastal areas, facilitating extraction and transportation.

For the U.S., African oil holds strategic significance, having begun imports in the 1950s, supported by official reports underscoring this importance. Former President George W. Bush indicated the aim to reduce reliance on Middle Eastern oil imports by 75% by 2025, sourcing from alternatives. The sensitivity of U.S. policy towards African oil has led to a willingness to utilize various means, regardless of their legality, to secure control over this essential resource.

By 2015, Africa’s share of the U.S. oil market had risen from 15% to 25%, with experts predicting that sustaining these levels could lead to the Middle East being surpassed within eight years as the primary source of foreign oil for the U.S.

3. China:

By the early 1990s, despite political challenges and production disruptions, African oil began playing a significant role in meeting global oil needs, with optimistic forecasts regarding recoverable barrels from Africa. China’s economy grew considerably, achieving annual growth rates of 9% in 1982, 13% in 1993, and 11.3% in 2006.

Having discovered oil in its territory in 1959, China aspired to become a significant player in oil markets. However, internal production could not keep pace with its rapidly growing economy. By 1993, national oil supply no longer met economic growth, resulting in China becoming a net oil importer. Throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s, oil served as the linking factor between China and Africa.

China aimed to face its internal growth challenges, necessitating a pivotal role for Africa in its strategy. By early 2004, Chinese oil demand surged, surpassing Japan to become the second-largest consumer after the U.S. The trade balance between China and Africa escalated to a remarkable $55 billion annually, establishing a significant partnership in the new oil system.

China penetrated Africa with financial resources and influence rather than military might. In 2005, Chinese companies invested $175 million in Africa for oil exploration, infrastructure, roads, railways, agriculture, and education.

In response, U.S. strategy now aims to curb growing Chinese influence in Africa as China seeks to harness Africa’s desire to engage eastward. China’s presence is particularly notable in the oil sector and infrastructure projects throughout Africa, prompting concern from key elements within the U.S. administration and strategic research centers following the 2006 China-Africa summit.

Conclusion:

The importance of oil continues to grow as a vital energy commodity, and there is an urgent need for it in light of ongoing economic growth in major countries like China, along with substantial demands from the U.S. and the European Union. These nations are competing for oil through various means, even engaging in warfare when deemed necessary. The motivations for major powers to secure oil supplies stem from political instability in some producing regions and price volatility, especially during crises.

Several major countries have formed security agreements and established military bases in or near producer countries as a contingency plan during crises, as the global oil market is significantly impacted by political instability in production areas. While the U.S. seeks to diversify its sources and dominate secure, nearby areas, it faces intense competition from China and EU nations to ensure reliable oil supplies.