Introduction
John Watson, the founder of the behavioral school, famously stated, “Give me ten healthy, well-formed children, and I will randomly select one of them and train him to be whatever I want—be it a doctor, artist, scientist, thief, or beggar—regardless of his skills, talents, or ancestral background.” How could he achieve such an assertion? Can one truly shape an individual in this manner? Reflect on these questions as we explore the foundations of his school and the means he proposed to realize this claim.
Behaviorism in psychology is a concept that blends philosophy, methodology, and theory. It emerged in the early 20th century as a counterpoint to mentalist psychology, which struggled with the inability to perform reproducible experiments. Behavioral psychology posits that all activities conducted by living beings, including movement, thought, and emotion, are forms of behavior. Consequently, psychological disturbances are treated by altering behavior patterns or modifying the environment. According to behaviorist doctrine, individuals’ responses to various environmental stimuli shape our behavior. Behaviorists believe that it is possible to study behavior in a systematic and acknowledged manner without considering internal mental states. Thus, behavior can be fully explained without delving into psychological mental conditions.
The behaviorist school argues that such behaviors can be scientifically described without resorting to internal physiological events or hypothetical concepts such as the mind. Behavioral theory suggests that all theories must rest on observable correlations, although there are clear philosophical distinctions between observable phenomena (such as physical actions) and individual inner processes (like thinking and feeling).
Chapter One: The Behavioral School
Section One: Historical Origins
The behavioral school arose following the widespread influence of the psychoanalytic school established by Freud. Key factors that contributed to its emergence include:
- The rise of prior movements advocating for objectivity in psychology, such as those led by Descartes and Auguste Comte.
- Darwin’s theory of evolution, which sparked interest in animal psychology.
- The impact of the Russian school of conditional reflexes pioneered by Ivan Sechenov and developed by Pavlov.
There seems to be a gap, whether due to dissatisfaction with previously proposed theories or a complete belief in their futility, which triggered a search for alternatives. Undoubtedly, the influences outlined above contributed to the emergence of the behavioral school.
In the early period of psychology in the 19th century, the behavioral school directed the currents of psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology in the 20th century, with participation from key figures such as Ivan Pavlov, whose investigation of classical conditioning greatly influenced behaviorism, despite his differing views from behaviorists. Edward Lee Thorndike and John B. Watson advocated for restrictive experimental methodologies within psychology, while B.F. Skinner’s research focused on operant conditioning.
By the latter half of the 20th century, behaviorism stood alone due to the rise of cognitive psychology. Despite appearing theoretically incompatible, behaviorism and cognitive psychology have integrated within practical therapeutic applications, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, which has proven effective in treating certain disorders, including phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder, and addiction. Additionally, behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of human behavior from birth to death.
There is no universally accepted classification of behaviorism, but some branches include:
- Methodological Behaviorism: Watson’s approach notes that only observable events (i.e., individuals’ behaviors) can be objectively monitored, thus private events (thoughts and feelings) should be disregarded.
- Radical Behaviorism: Proposed by B.F. Skinner, this theory emphasizes understanding internal processes within living organisms and suggests that environmental variables influence internal events as much as they do observable behaviors.
- Purposeful Behaviorism: This variant follows Skinner’s methodology, focusing on observable behaviors rather than cognitive processes.
- Psychological Behaviorism: Introduced by Arthur W. Staats, this approach departs from previous behaviorism methods, engaging in a human research agenda, offering new qualitative learning principles for humans distinct from animals.
- Interactive (Social) Behaviorism: Established by Jacob Robert Kantor prior to Skinner’s studies.
Section Two: The Concept of Behaviorism
Behaviorism emerged in America in 1913 through John Watson’s focus on observable behavior using objective scientific methods. Proponents of behaviorism believe that human behavior is dictated by environmental influences, dismissing the concept of internal factors shaping behavior. According to Watson, the primary goal of psychology should be the study of behavior—not feelings. He asserted that “psychology should be confined to the objective study of human and animal behavior as it can be externally observed.”
This school views living beings as complex mechanical systems driven not by purpose-directed impulses but by physical stimuli that elicit varied muscular and glandular responses.
Section Three: Principles of Behaviorism
Behaviorism entails principles that fundamentally oppose classical psychology, characterized by:
- Emphasizing the study of behavioral phenomena through direct observation rather than other external studies, prioritizing observable behaviors and recognizing reflexes as a crucial linking factor between stimuli and responses.
- Grounding its approach in reinforcement and punishment and their roles in shaping living beings’ behavior.
- Highlighting the significance of direct observation and describing occurrences as they happen, asserting that behavior can either be learned or modified through learning processes.
- Focusing on observable behavior rather than internal mental events, concentrating instead on how these events relate to behavior and their explanatory role rather than considering them as behaviors in themselves.
- Maintaining that behavior can be shaped when the right environmental conditions are enforced.
- Advocating for a gradual approach in utilizing therapeutic methods (reinforcement and counter-conditioning).
- Capable of breaking down behavior into its simplest components.
- Involving clients in determining the goals and means of treatment.
Chapter Two: Founders of the Behavioral School
Section One: Pioneers and Their Contributions
- John Watson
John Watson was born in North Carolina and received his master’s degree from Furman University in 1900, later specializing in experimental psychology. He conducted experiments on animals and wrote his doctoral thesis on animal psychology applications. Watson’s behaviorism features:
- Predicting responses based on knowledge of stimuli.
- Predicting stimuli based on known responses.
According to Watson’s tenets of psychology:
- Behavior consists of elements that can be analyzed using objective scientific research methods.
- Behavior is comprised of glandular secretions and muscular movements.
- Every stimulus elicits an immediate response (stimulus-response).
- Conscious processes, if they exist, cannot be studied scientifically, such as imagination and thought.
- Ivan Pavlov
Born in 1849 near Moscow, Pavlov was the first to explore the relationship between the brain and behavior, a complex issue. His significant studies include:
- Investigating the function of dog nerves.
- Examining the salivation process (for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1904).
- Studying higher neural centers in the brain.
Pavlov was chiefly interested in conditioning, using dogs that underwent surgical operations to redirect saliva through external tubes. His work focused on the secretions elicited by dogs when presented with food. He observed that the dog began salivating at the mere sound of a bell signaling a food presentation, concluding that a conditioned stimulus (the bell) could evoke an unconditioned response (salivation).
Key principles identified by Pavlov include:
Reinforcement: A response occurs only if the unconditioned stimulus is paired with the conditioned stimulus multiple times.
The principle of extinction: This occurs when the conditioned stimulus appears without the unconditioned stimulus several times, leading to a decrease in the response.
The principle of generalization: Dogs respond similarly to similar stimuli.
The principle of discrimination: Dogs respond to a stimulus that has been reinforced with food but not others.
- Edward Tolman
Tolman, an integral figure in the behavioral school, belongs to the group of neo-behaviorists and is American by origin. His stance can be summarized as follows:
- Purposeful behaviorism: where he combined behavior and intent, contrasting with the behaviorists’ rejection of consciousness.
- Intervening variables: He posited that five variables represent causes of behavior: age, environmental stimuli, heredity, prior training, and physiological barriers.
- Learning theory: human and animal behavior can be modified through experience.
- Clark Hull
An American psychologist, Hull is considered one of the contemporary figures in psychology. His key theories include:
- The referential framework for behavior: the adaptation of living organisms to their unique environment.
- Research methodology in psychology: where he argued that the laws of behavior must be articulated in precise mathematical terms.
- Learning: a mechanism individuals use to satisfy their needs based on the diversity of their efforts.
Section Two: Concepts of Behavioral Theory
The behavioral school is based on several critical concepts:
Human behavior as learned: Individuals learn both adaptive and maladaptive behaviors, which result from their activities and can be modified or changed through reinforcement.
Stimulus and response: According to behavioral theory, every behavior or response is a stimulus, with the implication that observed behaviors will be considered normal or abnormal based on circumstances; hence, studying the interplay of stimuli and responses is essential.
Motivation: Motivation is a fundamental condition for learning, where stronger motivation enhances learning efficacy.
Reinforcement: This involves strengthening and supporting learned behavior, where supportive reinforcement encourages the repeat of the behavior.
Extinction: This opposes the principle of reinforcement and refers to the diminishing of learned behavior when not practiced.
Generalization: This concept describes the transfer of a stimulus’s effect to similar situations or stimuli, promoting a tendency for individuals to generalize learned responses.
Learning through imitation: Individuals typically acquire behavior by observing models in their environment and emulating them.
Chapter Three: Behavior
Section One: The Concept and Types of Behavior
The concept of behavior can be defined linguistically as derived from the verb “to behave,” implying the choice of a path or method. In behavioral terminology, behavior is viewed as a collection of responses elicited by external stimuli, whether natural or social, in various contexts (responses to stimuli); these actions are measurable and observable, reflecting a quasi-mechanical relationship between stimuli and responses.
Types of Stimuli in Behavior:
- Internal stimuli: Related to emotions such as fear and love.
- External stimuli: Related to the external environment, such as greetings or avoiding obstacles while walking.
Observation
There exists unobservable behavior, like thinking, which is not directly observable but its effects on an individual are perceivable. This kind of behavior is outside the realm of behavioral psychology, which focuses exclusively on observable and measurable actions.
Types of Behavior:
Individuals’ behavior can sometimes be deemed acceptable—we refer to this as normal behavior—or, in contrast, deemed unacceptable, which places us in a position of surprise, labeled as abnormal or deviant behavior.
Normal Behavior: This manifests in daily life as usual or familiar conduct among people, responding appropriately to various situations within broader accepted norms.
Abnormal Behavior: This consists of incorrect responses learned by individuals over their growth period.
Section Two: Behavioral Disorders
Characteristics of behavioral disorders often seen among affected individuals include:
- Inability to learn not attributed to general intelligence or sensory impairment.
- Failure to establish normal social relationships with individuals and society, such as exhibiting withdrawal tendencies.
- Displaying unusual responses in normative situations and vice versa.
Section Three: Behavioral Therapy
Foundations of behavioral therapy are rooted in behavioral theory, which posits that individual personality traits are molded and adjusted according to the reinforcement and extinction of various behavior patterns. The proponents of this theory, Watson and Pavlov, suggested that psychological disorders stem from incorrect habits formed through specific conditioned reflex actions, and to correct these deviant habits, it is essential to extinguish pathological conditioned actions while establishing new functional ones through learning desirable behaviors via the following steps:
- Identifying the desired behavior.
- Recognizing the conditions under which it occurs.
- Formulating a therapeutic plan.
- Evaluating and reviewing results.
Characteristics of Behavioral Therapy:
Behavioral therapy is distinguished by unique traits seldom found in other therapeutic methods, including:
- Focusing on visible and measurable behaviors.
- Concentrating on the present without referring to the past.
- Emphasizing clarifying therapeutic goals.
- Formulating specific therapeutic approaches tailored to particular issues.
- Establishing objective assessments of therapeutic outcomes.
- Generally requiring less time compared to psychoanalytic methods.
The Behavioral School in International Relations
Emerging in the mid-1950s, the behavioral school primarily crystallized in the 1960s. Its aim was to create a theoretical framework for explanation, interpretation, and prediction. Behavioralists utilized scientific and quantitative methods in their research, focusing on presenting and selecting hypotheses comparatively and constructing models and theories built upon accurately defined and logically interconnected concepts.
Behavioralists concentrated on recurring patterns rather than individual cases as the focal point of their research, where theory construction is predicated on the ability to generalize and issue broad judgments, relying on hypothesis verification. A significant shift occurred with behaviorism toward scientific methods based on statistics, greatly aided by the use of computers and mathematics.
In many fields, the behavioral school drew upon findings from sociologists, psychologists, and anthropologists who studied individual and group behaviors, leveraging these insights to construct partial or medium-range theories in international relations. This stems from the premise that state behaviors essentially reflect the behaviors of individuals and formal as well as informal groups within those states.
A crucial condition for behaviorists to transform facts and events into information and data lies in establishing clear, repeatable classification and sorting procedures. Behaviorism calls for the use of scientific principles and methods grounded in the quantitative measurement of variables.
Chapter Four: Advantages and Criticisms of Behaviorism
Section One: Advantages
The behavioral school, with its various branches, aims to address the shortcomings identified in classical assumptions, profoundly opposing earlier assumptions. Major advantages include:
- Addressing observable, measurable behaviors.
- Fostering a collaborative, unified team spirit.
- Viewing the organization not only as an economic unit but also as a social entity.
- Enabling individuals to realize their potential and showcase their talents and abilities while accomplishing institutional goals.
Section Two: Criticisms of the School
Critiques directed at the behavioral school can be summarized as follows:
In light of Watson’s assertion about his ability to shape individuals regardless of their inherent predispositions, critics note that he proclaimed the capacity to forge personalities without considering innate inclinations and talents, a feat even the most prominent behaviorists have struggled to achieve.
This theory denies the existence of inner values and beliefs influencing behavior, suggesting instead that motives and intelligence are complex habits acquired over an individual’s life.
It neglects the role of conscience in guiding behavior.
It overlooks human history and focuses solely on present behavior in isolation, which may result in disregarding certain experiences and leaving them untreated, pushing them into the unconscious and causing psychological issues.
Behaviorism’s focus on behavior fails to recognize that many behavioral patterns do not stem from owners’ convictions.
Conclusion
In summary, behaviorism comprises various theories that have contributed to a new understanding of behavior and its treatment. Responding to the previously posed question, the behavioral school has significantly impacted psychology through its concepts and theories while providing pathways for addressing behavioral issues.
References
- “Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind” by David Buss57
- “The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture” edited by Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby5
- “The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature” by Steven Pinker5
- “Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality” by Jared Diamond5
- “The Moral Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology” by Robert Wright5