In earlier times, geography dictated politics and location determined destiny. Today, however, we live in a new era—one where physical borders recede in favor of digital spaces, where code carries more weight than maps, and algorithms surpass guns in strategic importance. We have entered a new phase of international competition, where control of land, sea, or air is no longer the ultimate goal. Instead, the focus has shifted toward domination of the virtual world—its rules, infrastructures, and invisible systems—which now lie at the heart of every global conflict.
In this context, World Builders: Technology and the New Geopolitics by former Portuguese diplomat Bruno Maçães is an ambitious attempt to reinterpret the nature of international politics in the age of advanced technology. Maçães argues that the technological revolutions of the twenty-first century are reshaping the very logic of global politics. He proposes a new theory for understanding how great powers interact in a world dominated by rapid advancements in artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and communications. Geopolitics, he contends, is no longer merely a struggle for territorial control—it has become a competition to create territories themselves, requiring a radical rethinking of power, sovereignty, and dominance in the international system.
From the Physical to the Digital
Physical geography is no longer the sole determinant of influence. According to Maçães, the technological revolutions of the twenty-first century have profoundly altered the geopolitical logic, pushing the control of advanced technologies to the forefront of great power competition. Power today is not measured only by landmass or the size of traditional armies, but by a nation’s capacity for innovation, its ability to control data flows, develop digital infrastructure, and shape the rules of cyberspace.
This transformation does more than add a new dimension to international rivalry—it redefines the very nature of power, alters alliance dynamics, and forces states to rethink their security, economic, and diplomatic strategies to adapt to a reality dominated by technology.
Maçães highlights how corporations like Google, Meta, and Amazon now set the rules of the game in critical areas such as artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, and cyberspace itself. He points to concrete cases involving these companies’ roles in shaping immigration policies, engaging in Pentagon defense projects, and influencing election outcomes through algorithmic targeting. The centers of gravity, therefore, are no longer confined to traditional geopolitical hubs—they now span Silicon Valley, Shanghai, and massive data centers worldwide.
The book also analyzes the concept of digital sovereignty, examining how states are striving to regain control over their cyberspaces through encryption, national internet networks, and taxation or regulation of transnational tech giants. Maçães poses a crucial question: Can nation-states truly contain forces that have escaped their technical bottle? Are we witnessing the return of the state—or the end of traditional sovereignty?
He emphasizes that the geographic foundations of international politics have been radically transformed: major powers are building worlds in which other nations merely reside, while retaining the capacity to rewrite the rules—or even alter the very state of the world. This marks a fundamental shift in the essence of geopolitical power.
Technological progress, Maçães argues, is creating new “synthetic territories”—virtual lands over which great powers, particularly the United States and China, now compete in a high-stakes race. Sovereignty has expanded beyond geography to include control over the digital and informational infrastructures that underpin power in the twenty-first century.
The Militarization of Algorithms
Maçães dissects the security dimension of AI, asserting that we are witnessing an unspoken militarization of algorithms. The struggle is no longer over who possesses the most bombs, but over who owns the most data, who can develop faster and more powerful AI models, and who can use them to infiltrate adversaries’ networks or manipulate collective consciousness.
He delves deeply into the AI race between Washington and Beijing, showing how large language models (LLMs) and deep learning tools have become integral to military strategy, diplomacy, and even instruments of soft power. For instance, China’s development of an AI-driven surveillance state is not merely a technical advancement—it represents a totalitarian governance model that threatens the liberal Western paradigm.
Meanwhile, the United States seeks to preserve its dominance through technological alliances like the Tech Quad (with Japan, Australia, and India). These coalitions aim not only to contain China but to construct an alternative technological world order that reflects Western values. Yet, Maçães warns of a deeper issue—moral uncertainty surrounding the use of AI in decisions of war and peace.
Through his notion of “world-building”, he explains how great powers strive to create comprehensive technological systems that govern global interactions. These range from AI platforms and quantum communication networks to digital infrastructures and electronic payment systems. Mastery over these systems, he argues, has become a new benchmark of power in the emerging world order. This dynamic generates new forms of dependency, as smaller nations are compelled to operate within frameworks set by the major powers—thus reshaping traditional ideas of sovereignty and independence.
The Challenge of Dominance
Maçães underscores a central truth: the era of technology-centered geopolitics has already begun. This phrase encapsulates the profound transformation he explores throughout the book—technology is no longer a secondary tool or analytical lens for understanding world politics; it has become the core arena of power, security, and prosperity.
States that fail to adapt to this transformation risk marginalization within the global order, while those that harness innovation, invest in research and development, and craft integrated technological strategies will emerge as the most influential powers of the twenty-first century.
This technological competition is not limited to the United States and China—it encompasses every nation and society seeking to secure a place within the expanding digital order. Crafting coherent national strategies in areas such as artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, and quantum computing has become an existential necessity, not a policy luxury.
Consequently, the structure of international alliances is being reshaped along technological rather than purely military lines. Partnerships focused on semiconductor supply chain security or AI standard-setting have become new tools for exerting influence and advancing geopolitical interests. Thus, Maçães calls for a fundamental rethinking of national security, sovereignty, and global relations—since technology is no longer just the battlefield; it is the battlefield itself.
Despite the ambitions of major powers—particularly the United States and China—to achieve near-total dominance over the global technological system, Maçães acknowledges that this aspiration faces deep structural barriers. Chief among them are the decentralized nature of cyberspace, the accelerating pace of technological innovation, and the growing influence of non-state actors and smaller nations. Startups from non-major powers can now drive significant change, while open-source developers, transnational social movements, and even hackers disrupt monopolies and create independent alternatives.
This complex interplay produces a multipolar technological order, characterized by dynamic alliances and fragmented spheres of influence. It limits the feasibility of global hegemony and fosters a “cyber fragmentation” that could yield divergent digital ecosystems—each with its own norms, values, and governance models. Such a reality demands flexible, effective global governance frameworks.
Ultimately, Maçães argues that advanced technology has transformed world politics, necessitating a reexamination of the fundamental concepts of international relations. Power is no longer merely the ability to shape events—it is the ability to define the very framework in which events occur. Nations capable of building and controlling technological worlds gain an immense strategic advantage, as they can set and rewrite the rules according to their interests.
This emerging order introduces a new inequality: the division between world builders and world dwellers. It reshapes global security, where cyberattacks, data manipulation, and control over digital infrastructure become key instruments of conflict. Such changes demand a rethinking of international law, treaties, and governance to align with technological realities.
Conclusion
Maçães concludes that we now live in the era of geopolitical technology, where algorithms no longer just solve equations—they draw borders, assign rights, and distribute power. The great challenge of the twenty-first century, therefore, is not merely how to develop technology, but how to govern it.
He calls for the creation of a new international system for technology governance—one that ensures transparency, prevents monopolization, and protects human rights in the digital world. Civil society, academics, and non-state actors must all be included in shaping this technological future.
To survive in this new age, nations cannot remain on the margins of the digital revolution. They must possess a strategic vision, invest heavily in research and development, and actively shape international rules. Above all, as Maçães concludes, technology is not merely a tool—it is an entirely new political realm. And those who build it today will define the world of tomorrow.
Source:
Bruno Maçães, World Builders: Technology and the New Geopolitics, Foreign Affairs, May/June 2025, p.179.
