Psychological warfare represents a form of conflict that aims to influence the adversary, weaken their morale, and manipulate their thoughts, beliefs, and opinions. It is recognized as a tool used in social psychology and military psychology, but experts differ in naming this phenomenon. Some refer to it as “cold war,” while others use terms like “war of ideas” and “propaganda war.” However, they all agree on its fundamental meaning, which suggests that it is a type of conflict aimed at replacing one set of ideas with another that benefits the party launching the psychological warfare.
Additionally, psychological warfare can be defined as the use of activities intended to incite fear and anxiety in individuals without inflicting physical harm.
Origin of the Term
The phrase “psychological warfare” first appeared in a 1930 work by the German author Colonel Paul, who was then head of the psychological laboratory at the Ministry of Defense. His book, entitled “What Does All Propaganda Mean?”, laid the foundations for understanding psychological warfare.
The term gained prominence during World War II, as both the Allies and Axis powers utilized it to describe propaganda based on psychological principles. One of the earliest definitions by the U.S. Army describes it as “the use of any means intended to affect the morale and behavior of any group for a military objective.”
In subsequent editions of military glossaries, it was refined to describe it as a “state-planned use of propaganda activities during wartime or emergencies, intended to influence the attitudes, emotions, and behaviors of hostile, neutral, or friendly groups in a manner that assists in achieving national policy objectives.” Eventually, the terminology was updated to reflect that psychological warfare is not restricted to wartime or emergencies.
A handwritten document by the U.S. Navy from 1946 reiterated that “the fundamental purpose of psychological warfare is to impose our will on that of the enemy, controlling their actions through methods other than military means and without relying solely on economic tools.”
Despite these comprehensive definitions, no singular definition encapsulates psychological warfare fully since it intertwines diverse psychological and social sciences. It emerged from the recognition of psychological awareness and the practical application of contemporary psychological theories.
Although it does not employ conventional weapons, psychological warfare can be just as fierce and deadly as military conflict. Its weapons include words and images that can negatively or positively impact morale, emotions, and actions of enemy, neutral, or friendly groups, aiming to alter behaviors towards a specified goal or agenda, to support either a political policy, current events, or military strategies during times of war or crises.
Historical Use
While often seen as a modern invention, psychological warfare has ancient roots. Historical figures like Cyrus the Great used it against Babylon, Xerxes against the Greeks, Philip II of Macedon against Athens, Khalid ibn al-Walid against the Romans, Yusuf ibn Tashfin against the Castilians, and Abd al-Malik al-Saadi against the Portuguese. Furthermore, the Palestinian resistance, particularly the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas), employs it against Israeli occupation.
One notable psychological strategy was the “fifth column” used effectively during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). It refers to secret sabotage factions attempting to undermine group solidarity. The term’s origin is credited to General Emilio Mola, who referred to his loyalists in Madrid as the “fifth column,” working clandestinely to weaken the loyalist government.
During the medieval period, the Mongols also utilized psychological warfare to broaden their empire. Genghis Khan sent spies in the early 11th century to instill fear in adversaries through exaggeration and rumor, undermining fighters’ morale with tales of vast Mongolian armies and brutal actions. He manipulated enemy perceptions using a fast-moving cavalry, leading opponents to believe that the Mongol forces greatly outnumbered them.
The World Wars
The significance of psychological warfare was further amplified at the end of the 1980s and the early 1990s, especially during the Soviet Union’s disintegration. This broader conceptualization greatly influenced the Western world—particularly the U.S.—prompting them to view and utilize psychological warfare as one of the most effective tools in the international landscape, especially after the collapse of the Soviet power.
Throughout history, particularly during global conflicts, psychological warfare played a crucial role. World War I marked a turning point in the methods of psychological operations. The transition from incidental use to a recognized art and science of its own led some analysts to argue that the victory in World War I could largely be attributed to psychological operations.
Despite Germany’s propaganda shortcomings in World War I, notably on the home front, it learned valuable lessons. The Nazis rose to power by appealing to the average citizen using the same tactics successfully in the international arena. This included rallying support through grand displays of might that eventually devolved into cold cruelty, indifferent to moral considerations in pursuit of its objectives.
In World War II, psychological warfare evolved significantly. It transformed into a formidable new term for propaganda, with radio playing a significant role in disseminating information to large audiences effectively. The Axis powers (Italy, Germany, Japan, and Spain) employed aggressive campaigns to instill fear in their adversaries, leveraging black propaganda before military actions while attempting to conceal their efforts.
In a Social Context
The Greeks referred to philosopher Socrates as “the first physician,” highlighting his vast knowledge in both philosophy and medicine. Legend has it that this title irked his neighbor, a medical doctor, who claimed he deserved the title more. When put to a test before the king, the doctor proposed to administer poison to Socrates in a contest of wills, suggesting whoever survived was the better healer.
As the doctor prepared the poison, Socrates summoned three men to create a rhythmic pounding for 40 days, so the doctor would hear it. When the day arrived, both faced each other before the king after preparing antidotes to each other’s poisons. Upon drinking the poison, Socrates briefly fell ill but ultimately recovered, while the doctor collapsed after consuming the elixir Socrates had prepared, which was merely water.
Socrates explained that the doctor succumbed due to his overwhelming psychological expectation, having listened to the pounding and believed he was ingesting poison. Thus, Socrates effectively “killed” his opponent through mere suggestion, akin to modern psychological warfare.
Islamic History
A notable instance of psychological warfare occurred during the Battle of Mu’tah, where Khalid ibn al-Walid deceived the Roman forces into believing that reinforcements were on the way. The next day, he pretended to lure them into a trap, retreating while they watched without pursuing him.
Another significant example is the secrecy maintained by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as he approached Mecca for its conquest, surprising the Quraysh with a large army they could not resist, leading to their surrender without battle.
In the context of the recent “Al-Aqsa Flood” operation launched by Palestinian resistance on October 7, 2023, Hamas skillfully utilized psychological tactics alongside military advances, fostering fear among invading soldiers who felt surrounded. Some soldiers went as far as describing Hamas fighters as ghosts due to their pervasive presence. This psychological manipulation was complemented by the release of videos showing captured fighters sharing moments of peace, effectively countering the Israeli narrative that aimed to dehumanize the resistance.
Objectives of Psychological Warfare
Psychological warfare aims to achieve several objectives based on circumstances and the adversarial party, including:
- Undermining the opposing group’s faith, values, or principles through exaggeration of their mistakes and ridicule of contentious values.
- Sowing discord and division within neutral or opposing groups, separating the populace from leadership and community members from each other.
- Amplifying economic, financial, and social crises to impose dominance over targeted states through conditional loans and aid packages, tightening their dependency.
- Attempting to control the will of the people and their leaders to serve the interests and policies of the opposing party through doubts about the targeted countries’ capacities and plans.
- Encouraging religious and political extremism to confuse individuals’ genuine and moderate beliefs, casting doubt on their validity.
- Spreading feelings of despair and hopelessness, particularly among youth, which contribute to broader political, economic, social, and strategic aims.
Professor “Regdar Dacros,” a pioneer of psychological warfare in Britain during World War II, stated that key objectives of psychological warfare include dismantling societal values and ethics, disorienting the political perspectives of the population, eradicating their beliefs and principles, bombarding them with new “lessons and morals,” deepening divides between governments and their populations, and fostering discord among members of a single community.
Tools of Psychological Warfare
To be effective, psychological warfare employs various tools, including:
Rumors
Rumors spread through individuals, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, or other media. They can include calls through loudspeakers or distributing pamphlets urging surrender to influence public opinion at local, regional, or global levels to achieve specific political, economic, or military objectives. The essence of rumors is to undermine morale and can be pivotal during conflicts and crises.
Propaganda
Propaganda plays a significant role in disorienting enemy plans and influencing individual and community realities. Much of psychological warfare is conducted through propaganda, relaying certain information, ideas, opinions, and even lies through various channels, including social media, which has become a powerful tool for mass messaging and rapid dissemination of ideas across the globe.
Brainwashing
Also known as coercive persuasion, brainwashing is crucial in convincing non-believers to accept allegiances or doctrines. It involves techniques to manipulate human thought or actions against their will or awareness by controlling physical and social environments, ultimately aiming to destroy loyalties to any non-affiliated groups and asserting the need to change one’s beliefs and thought patterns.
Economic Boycotts
This systematic refusal to consume products from certain companies or nations serves as an effective means of exerting pressure to coerce compliance with specific demands, such as altering policies. This methodology can inflict considerable economic damage, affecting sales and exports, and thereby leading to significant political and social repercussions.
Psychological warfare can be considered one of the most formidable challenges faced by revolutions and reform movements universally, as it attempts to hinder emerging ideas and principles from rooting in minds and hearts. Therefore, it sows the seeds of division and puts obstacles to progress, operating in the shadows, undermining from behind, and disrupting thoughts through fabrications, rumors, creation of terror, and threats.
In recent times, economic boycotts have been employed in various contexts, including calls by the Muslim masses to boycott Swedish products following the Quran burning incident and calls to boycott French goods after derogatory caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) were published. There have also been campaigns to boycott Israeli products or those supporting Israel, which have gained significant momentum on social media platforms.
