Introduction to Political Thought

Since the formation of the first agricultural societies, humans have been able to establish the initial foundations of knowledge accumulation, enabling progress in intellectual creativity. This led to the growth of social human relationships, which deliberately raised questions about the natural and social existence. The initial answers formed beliefs and concepts about the controlling forces.

Through the growth and development of primitive agricultural societies, the first political societies emerged, directly or indirectly defining individual and collective human goals and the means to achieve them. This necessitated the emergence of social, economic, and then political matters, which are inherent to the historical development of societies.

Throughout history, humans have been occupied with political research, studying everything related to the political society, the source and nature of power, the means used, and the study of the foundations and nature of the relationship between the ruler and the ruled. It also involves determining goals and ways to achieve them, which every society and political system strives for.

The design and enrichment of the subject of the history of political thought are connected to the components of the subject itself. This is done by analyzing and describing the course, focusing on the three concepts that define its title: thought, politics, and history. Therefore, their meanings and uses will be briefly explained to clarify their application within the academic subject presented to students.

01- Concept of History

There is some confusion regarding the concept of history and its relation to recording and documenting the course of events, their timing, and the involved parties. From a semantic perspective, there is an overlap between the words “dating” and “history.” “Dating” refers to recording an event or occurrence and specifying this record in time and place. In Greek, “dating” is defined as the recording of news (Logographi), and the field of historical writing emerged in ancient Greece as Historiography. The Latin word “Historia” appeared during a period that witnessed an advancement in historical writing, meaning research, investigation, observation, narration, or storytelling. The Greek historian Herodotus (485-425 BC), known as the “Father of History,” used it as the title for one of his books, introducing a new style of historical writing. In his view, history became a social study distinct from the study of myths, aiming to connect history with inquiry, revealing and recording events of the past to preserve them from oblivion and loss during his famous journeys to the societies he visited in his time.

History represents the observation of human movement and activity on earth, and a deep study of human action and what it generates in terms of the emergence and development of human society in all its structural formations and manifestations. When observing human movement, there is an attempt to uncover the causal laws driving the emergence of a phenomenon or a set of social phenomena, and behind that lies the observation of social dynamics.

History has been a meeting point for sciences and knowledge, where some sciences dominate, others diminish, and others interact. This explains why sciences have been intertwined with history since their inception. In this regard, history embodies the fundamental building block and the basis for various scientific research, always drawing inferences from its facts to prove judgments or data, as well as within the evaluative dimension of practices, highlighting the accuracy and correctness of various activities and decisions, and the additions or achievements made.

02- Concept of Thought

The term “thought” in English is referred to as “Thought,” and in French as “Pensée.” Thought represents a set of values, representations, and rational judgments as mental constructs. For peoples and nations, it is the result of the accumulation of their heritage over a period of time, embodying the theoretical aspect, while the practical aspect is manifested in achievements, innovations, governance systems, ways of life, and means of developing life and achieving progress. In other words, it is the activation and implementation of theories and opinions from the realm of ideas to the realm of reality. Thought is either the way in which humans perceive the truths of the matters they work on, in which case thought becomes a tool or mechanism in the thinking process, along with the accompanying mental and psychological capacities, powers, and faculties, or it is what results from that in terms of concepts, judgments, and views on the issues at hand.

The term “thought” appears in the Quran in about twenty places, but in the form of a verb, not as a noun or infinitive; “they think, you think, think.” God Almighty said: “Do they not reflect upon themselves? Allah created the heavens and the earth and whatever is between them in truth and for a specified term. And indeed, many of the people, in [their] meeting with their Lord, are disbelievers.” (Surah Ar-Rum, verse 8). And He said: “Have they not considered that there is not among their companion any madness? He is but a clear warner.” (Surah Al-A’raf, verse 184). And He said: “Indeed, in that are signs for a people who give thought.” (Surah Ar-Ra’d, verse 3). And He said: “And of His signs is that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find tranquility in them; and He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought.” (Surah Ar-Rum, verse 21). And He said: “And of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the diversity of your languages and your colors. Indeed in that are signs for those of knowledge.” (Surah Ar-Rum, verse 22). And He said: “And of His signs is that He shows you the lightning [causing] fear and aspiration, and He brings down rain from the sky by which He brings to life the earth after its lifelessness. Indeed in that are signs for a people who use reason.” (Surah Ar-Rum, verse 24). And He said: “And of His signs is that the heaven and earth stand [i.e., remain] by His command. Then when He calls you with a [single] call from the earth, immediately you will come forth.” (Surah Ar-Rum, verse 25). And He said: “Allah makes clear to you the verses [of revelation] that you might give thought.” (Surah Al-Baqarah, verse 219). And He said: “He thought and deliberated. So may he be destroyed [for] how he deliberated. Then may he be destroyed [for] how he deliberated. Then he considered [again]. Then he frowned and scowled. Then he turned back and was arrogant. And said, ‘This is not but magic imitated [from others]. This is not but the word of a human being.'” (Surah Al-Muddathir, verses 18-25).

The Arabs used the term “thought” to mean the application of the mind to something, as well as the opposite of “friction,” where one rubs and examines things in search of their truth. It is said of a man who is “thoughtful”: someone who thinks a lot. The term “thought” is only used for the mental processes performed by humans, while even the manifestations that resemble human thought in animals are not called “thought,” but rather “instinctive guidance.”

The discussion related to thought can be divided into two areas: consciousness and intelligence, and thought and idea as derived from reflection, meaning contemplation. The source of “thought” is the application of the mind to something, and thought about something is its estimation and measurement, which is what is meant by “consideration.” It is contrasted with “intuition,” which is the rapid movement of the mind from principles to demands. The relationship of thought to effort is that thought is described as effort when its owner follows it with the exertion of energy in its application. On the other hand, thought can be considered as the sum of mental processes that enable humans to model the world around them, and consequently, to interact with it effectively according to their goals, plans, and ultimate desires. Some of the terms present in this interaction include reception, sentience, consciousness, ideas, and imagination.

Thought occupies the interest of various scientific disciplines. Within philosophy, it is connected to exploring the logical structure of thought, perceptual states, and various mental phenomena. Psychologists study the processes that support individuals’ ability to think and the methods of disabling these processes. Neuroscientists examine the neural mechanisms of thinking, while anthropologists are concerned with the cultural diversity of thinking patterns. Linguists study the relationship between thought and language, while researchers in computer science and artificial intelligence work towards exploring ways to enable non-living devices to think.

The concept of thought branches out into the term “thinking,” which is a holistic process through which the mental processing of sensory inputs and translated information takes place to form, infer, or judge ideas. This process includes perception, previous experience, conscious processing, and intuition.

Thinking remains a complex mental process in humans, and the importance of understanding this process increases when it is connected to political matters, topics related to governance and power, the relationship between individuals, their submission to laws, and their presentation of concepts of order, rights, and duties, and interpersonal relationships in society.

03- Concept of Politics

The concept of politics forms a comprehensive framework for numerous details and activities within human activity. The word “politics” in Arabic is derived from the verb “sasa” and “yasus,” meaning to handle a matter, manage it, or organize it. In a prophetic hadith, it is stated: “The Children of Israel were ruled by prophets. Whenever a prophet died, another prophet succeeded him…”

In Arabic, politics includes the following meanings:

• The action of the ruler;
• The management of affairs in a way that is beneficial;
• Leadership, guiding people, and managing their affairs;
• Nature and disposition.

Politics also means literature, education, and discipline. Ibn al-Muqaffa’ used it in the introduction to his book “Kalila wa Dimna” to mean “taming” when Dabshlim said to King Bidpai: “I would like you to compose a well-written book, in which you pour out your intellect, its apparent content being the politics of the public and their discipline, and the morals of kings and their politics towards the subjects in obedience to the king and serving him.”

In Greek, the term “politics” is derived from the word “Polis,” meaning the city. In ancient Greece, the city was the political unit, and it was known as the city-state. The word “Politica” was used to mean civil affairs and everything related to state affairs, the constitution, the political system, the republic, and sovereignty.

It is important to distinguish between the term “politics” with the definite article “al” and the word “Politics,” and the term “policy” without the definite article “al” and the word “Policy.” The latter refers to what the state plans and implements in terms of action plans and programs. We say foreign policy, financial policy, social policy, and economic policy, which collectively form the state’s policies and represent the practical aspects aimed at achieving the state’s goals.

Based on the combination of the terms “thought” and “politics,” political thought can be defined as the abstract intellectual framework connected to the depiction and interpretation of political existence. It represents everything that comes to the human mind regarding their political organization and public life, as it is or as it should be. Political ideas are a rational conceptualization of the political phenomenon and represent the image of the political phenomenon as discussed by humans in different times and places.

Second – Distinguishing between Political Thought and Related Terms

To fully grasp the concept of political thought, it is necessary to clarify several related terms and avoid the state of synonymy that may not necessarily be accurate and correct. These terms can be presented as follows:

01- Political Philosophy:

Political philosophy is defined as the combination of contemplation with the demand for change. It is the reflective inquiry that seeks to analyze and understand the principles or basic elements on which practical political activity is based. It is concerned with a set of questions such as: What is the reality and what should it be? At its core, it is a type of knowledge revolving around understanding the nature of political things and attempting to reach criteria for the ideal political system, as well as the art of seeking the truth of things.

Political philosophy is an abstract rational study of political reality and the resolution of its problems, starting from reason and not from reality itself, and usually following a normative approach. It is a multidisciplinary study that combines philosophy, politics, history, sociology, and economics in an abstract rational conceptualization. It is a branch of philosophy concerned with the concepts and arguments contained in political opinion. Political philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about the state, government, politics, freedom, justice, and the enforcement of international law by authority. It is the ethics applied to a group of people to discuss how to create a society and how one should behave within their society. Political philosophy is concerned with noble actions, the happiness of individuals, and studies the duties of the politician or statesman. It is also concerned with the study of political values such as justice, freedom, and rights… etc. Political philosophy raises questions such as: Why should there be a state? In other words, why should a legal civil state be established instead of the natural state of human societies? What is government? What is the need for governments? What makes a government legitimate? What are the rights and freedoms that the government must protect? What are the duties that citizens owe to the legitimate government if it exists? When can a government be overthrown legally if it happens?

02- Political Knowledge:

Knowledge means a set of mental actions that take place between the human mind and the phenomenon under study, and it is referred to as the theoretical and practical understanding of a subject, or the sum of facts and/or information and/or abilities and/or insights that can be acquired through practice and experience, or through education and training. It is a capacity that enables its possessor, as an individual or entity (group, institution, or nation… etc.), to achieve.

In addition to the traditional classification of knowledge into two types, general knowledge and scientific knowledge, the second type includes natural knowledge and knowledge related to the study of natural phenomena such as physics and chemistry, and social knowledge related to human life in society such as economics, sociology, and politics. Therefore, knowledge varies in its names, depending on the variation in the nature of the materials targeted in it.

Political knowledge is concerned with the general matter in terms of its actors, goals, mechanisms, processes, variations, relationships, paths, and outcomes. Thus, knowledge is described as political through its connection to political matters. Experts from UNESCO agreed in a meeting in 1948 (published in 1950) to distribute the topics of political knowledge into:

• Political theory, including the history of political thought;
• Political systems, including the constitution, governments (central and local), public administration, the economic and social functions of governments, comparative political systems;
• Parties and public opinion;
• International relations, including international politics, history of international relations, diplomacy, international organization, and international law.

03- Political Theory:

Theory exists in philosophy and science and is used to mean something higher intellectually or abstractly, and it can be defined as: A logically interconnected set of propositions, and a network of deductive generalizations through which interpretations or predictions about certain well-known patterns of events can be derived. Theory is related to the political aspect in that it embodies a set of abstract assumptions and logical relationships that attempt to explain and interpret how a certain political phenomenon occurs.

Theory includes in its structure two interrelated processes: theory building and theory testing. Its central functions are to guide political research, and in this regard, it performs three main functions: A- Definition: whether it is the definition of the field of study, determining its dimensions and components, which is known as the ontological determination of the field in terms of its nature, existence, and presence, or the definition of key concepts by reordering them according to their weights, roles, and content. B- Description and explanation: through first determining the characteristics of the phenomenon, its components, and the factors affecting it, their relative weights, and their degrees of action, then clarifying the causes of facts, their context, and their results. C- Scientific prediction: it is the process of building studied predictions for what will happen in the future, and this building is done in a scientific and consistent manner, in a way that maintains the theory’s ability to continue and convince.

04- Political Phenomenon:

The term “phenomenon” is used to refer to any observable event, indicating types of phenomena, whether natural or social, behavioral, or historical. In general usage, the phenomenon often refers to an unusual event, while in scientific usage, it is any event that can be observed, monitored, and recorded. Phenomena also refer to behaviors, practices, perceptions, and reactions, encompassing the psychological, social, cultural, and economic aspects, and revolving around the concept of the social phenomenon. Political phenomena are related to humans through relationships embodied in the duality of command and obedience (the commander and the obedient) and the duality of friend and enemy. The first duality is what calls for the establishment of the political society, the essence of which is political power, while the second duality calls for a state of differentiation within and between societies, and patterns of interaction between them.

The political phenomenon crystallizes as a reflection of two concepts: the political society and political power; A- Origin of the political society: it has become clear throughout history that humans are naturally predisposed to live in a group, including the family as the first social entity, up to the modern political society formed within the framework of the state and its various administrative organizations. The political society is a framework of organized, conscious, and purposeful social interaction, unlike the instinctive natural interaction of animal societies. B- Development of political power: political power has taken historically different forms, accumulating within the relationship of domination and submission, in three forms: direct communal power in primitive societies, personalized power where political power is a characteristic of an individual or a limited group in ancient and medieval times, and organized power where it is subject to laws and defined in them, its tasks and powers, and exercised exclusively for the benefit of the political society. This concept emerged and developed with the emergence of the modern state.

05- School, Direction, and Doctrine in the Political Field

The term “school” expresses a scientific meaning focused on the duality of content and method, i.e., the subject and the approach (what do we study? and how do we study it?). Thus, the school refers to a state of consensus in the scientific community among a group of specialists about the understanding and production of scientific knowledge, the establishment of rules and assumptions, and the pattern of analysis, interpretation, proof, and prediction. It is a complex system of organized behavior to achieve a set of functions, and from an organizational perspective, the school expresses a complex social system consisting of a set of different systems such as beliefs, traditions, and values, for the purpose of performing its specific functions within the framework of society.

The school represents a state of intellectual distinction for its members, usually connected to a time period and convictions and beliefs accompanying it, such as talking about the traditional school, the behavioral school, or the post-behavioral school during the twentieth century. The school can also express a state centered around gender, such as the feminist school, affiliation, such as the German school, specialization, such as the social school, or ideology, such as the Marxist school.

The political attitude is defined as an organized and coordinated style of thinking, feeling, and reacting towards individuals, groups, and social issues, or any event in the environment. It also embodies an acquired organization with the characteristic of relative continuity of the beliefs held by the individual towards a subject or stance, preparing them for a response that is preferable to them.

The political attitude consists of: A- The cognitive component: which includes the beliefs that the individual believes in, the values and principles they adhere to, and includes the evidence, legal judgments, information, and objective facts about various issues. B- The affective (emotional) component: this component refers to the feelings of love and hatred that the individual directs towards the subject of the attitude. C- The behavioral component: which includes the practical tendency towards the subject of the attitude, so if the attitude is positive, this tendency leads them to action, adherence, and defense of the attitude, and if the attitude is negative, this practical tendency leads them to refrain, abandon, and warn against the attitude.

Political attitudes go through three stages: A- The perception stage: which involves the individual’s direct contact with some elements of the natural and social environment, and thus the attitude crystallizes in its formation around material things like comfort and stability, around a specific type of individuals like siblings, friends, and enemies, around a specific type of groups, and around some social values like heroism and honor. B- The differentiation stage: this stage is characterized by the growth of a tendency towards something, and its preference through comparisons, and determining the differences. C- The consolidation stage: which embodies a state of mental and psychological firmness of beliefs and preferences, and their defense.

The term “political doctrine” refers to the creed and political jurisprudence when its proponents aim to overthrow existing systems and conditions for organizing the state and society, and establish them on new foundations and principles. Therefore, the political doctrine is like a complete political program presented by that creed, and it is a declaration of the readiness of the thought, philosophy, and principles of that creed to be put into practice. It addresses the goals and the necessary means to achieve them, and it is noted that there is a connection between the term “ideology” and the term “political doctrine,” as they are often used as synonyms. Hence, for example, the political doctrine is called an ideology, such as the Marxist ideology and the liberal ideology.

The political creed refers to the set of ideas, principles, and values – whether religious or philosophical – that determine the stance on political reality, govern it or are governed by it, and provide a general vision of the political system that should govern the state, its policy towards society, and the relationship of power to individuals and their rights and freedoms. Just as the political creed can come to power and establish a governance system that expresses its philosophy and goals, power can also create a political creed that serves its existence and survival. In this context, Jean-Jacques Rousseau says in “The Social Contract”: “The strongest is never strong enough to be always the master, unless he transforms his strength into right, and obedience into duty.”

06- Political Analysis

Political analysis is defined as a deep intellectual and scientific understanding of the roots and origins of political practice, including its ideologies, creeds, and the interests of its parties. It is also concerned with the outcomes of politics and its goals, and it is a type of strategic thinking that is interested in knowing the nature of political events, their causes, paths, and the motives responsible for their occurrence, in addition to their developments. It also pays attention to knowing previous events and similar historical evidence, leading to a deep understanding of the course of crises and major events. Finally, it is concerned with developing the ability to predict the future paths of phenomena and events and their resulting outcomes, as well as providing advice and recommendations in light of these outcomes.

Political analysis has three goals: A- Political goal: by emphasizing the best policies to be adopted and choosing the best alternative; B- Scientific goal: through forming a database that supports the theoretical aspect and enables a scientific answer to questions about interactions, changes, and actors; C- Practical goal: through utilizing the acquired knowledge in solving problems, achieving keeping up, maximizing returns, anticipating dangers, and providing suggestions and recommendations.

07- Political Sciences and Political Science: Distinction and Concerns

The term “political sciences” or “political science” has been used to refer to the knowledge concerned with the world of politics, regardless of its approach, whether philosophical or scientific, and whether it is encompassed within a single educational unit called political science, or distributed among several traditional disciplines such as law, philosophy, economics, and media (the specialization of political science is integrated in Arab universities with law and sometimes with economics, and sometimes with media), depending on the variation of university education from one country to another. It is noted that the greater attention was given to political theory and political systems and was entrusted to professors of public law, as is the case in French universities.

In Anglo-Saxon countries, the field of political knowledge has seen an emphasis on the concept of political science, accompanying the transition of politics from the realm of art and skill to the realm of knowledge and scientific specialization, where its landmarks have become clearer and more mature. Columbia University defined political science as: “The science of studying government, the practical study of the exercise of political power, and the study of political institutions and political behavior.” In other words, this science is concerned with the study of the mechanism of governance and political institutions in both their types (legislative and executive) and informal organizations such as public opinion groups and parties. It also concerns itself with the study of all political activities of individuals, such as voting processes and elections, among others.

Several definitions and characteristics of this science can be presented: 01- It is the science of managing states and societal formations, and international relations from an interactive perspective; 02- It is the science that undertakes the provision of scientific approaches and methodologies for building modern states, managing crises, and solving problems at the domestic and international levels; 03- It is the science that studies the form of the state, its system, formations, foundations, and the actors and variables associated with it; 04- It is a comprehensive science of analytical tools and approaches in the humanities, social sciences, economics, management, and law, in addition to its subject specificity; 05- It is the science that researches all safe and possible means to resolve crises away from violence; 06- It is a science in which aspects of creativity, analysis, inference, foresight, strategic vision, establishment, and renewal are integrated with a spirit of realism and objectivity; 07- Politics is a science at the level of foundation and theorization and an art and creativity at the level of practice and application.

The specializations of political science bring together many sciences and epistemological approaches that provide the political researcher with comprehensiveness in thought, depth in analysis, diversity in remedial approaches, and immersion in all dimensions of the phenomenon and its variables. The most important of these specializations are: history of political thought, theories of the state, introduction to international relations, comparative political systems, political economy, political sociology, introduction to the science of law and obligations, introduction to the science of management, political and administrative organization, international organizations, public finance, civil society, local group management, comparative public administration, good governance, legislative systems, financial and monetary institutions, models of governance systems, electoral and party systems, human resource management, total quality management, administrative development, public policy formulation and decision-making, comprehensive and sustainable development, scientific research methodology, diplomacy and negotiation, political geography, theories of integration and merger, strategic studies.

Political science deals with the analysis and foundation of the following topics: 01- The state, society, and power, and how they are established, distributed, and managed; 02- Types of powers (judicial, legislative, and executive) and their jurisdictions and the relationship between them; 03- The general system of governance, its institutions, and tools; 04- The political system, its forms, and ways of exercising power; 05- The organization of the state, its sovereignty, institutions, and societal development; 06- International relations, the origins of diplomacy, and the management of international conflicts; 07- Foreign policy, international organizations, integration, and merger; 08- Administrative and public and local management development; 09- Strategic thought and future foresight; 10- National and international political economy and its political interactions.