Exploration of Russian Lands from Peter the Great to Joseph Stalin

Peter the First (the Great) played a monumental role in enhancing awareness and knowledge of the Russian environment and the development of national geography. The term “geography” itself entered educational and research usage during the era of Peter the Great’s reforms.

The period of Peter the First marked a significant organization of extensive geographical research, both in the European sector of Russia and in its Asian territories, stretching from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the southern borders, and from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. In 1701, the work titled “Landmarks of Siberia,” prepared by the Russian traveler Lemizov, was completed. This was the first national atlas still in existence today and included 23 routes to Siberia and Northern Europe, with maps drawn based on the scientific material collected by this Russian traveler. Later, Demizov, along with his son, published two other geographical works about Russia: “Book of Regional Landmarks” (1697-1711) featuring 171 plates, and “Book of Visual Works” (1702-1730) comprising 116 pages.

All maps from that period were created without a coordinate network, and the geographical role these maps played was represented by another network known as the water network, which was drawn with high precision and detail. The earliest topographic surveys in Russia (the Gulf of Finland and the Don River) belong to the era of Peter the Great. During this period, foundational work began on surveying for a general map of Russia, overseen by the geodesic supervisor Kirilov.

By orders of Peter the First, the first Russian scientific expedition to investigate all the kingdoms of Siberia was organized, led by the Polish scientist Daniel Gottlieb Messier Schmidt (1685-1735). This expedition lasted seven years (1720-1727) and laid the groundwork for planned scientific research in Siberia.

During this mission, numerous regions containing raw materials (such as coal and graphite) were discovered, along with descriptions of deposits for lead and silver ores and salt lakes behind Lake Baikal.

Schmidt published a ten-volume work titled “General Overview of Siberia,” which can be considered the first scientific study of this vast area, including several maps.

During the Petrine period, the Russians continued to move eastward. In the final years of the 17th century, the journey to Kamchatka was undertaken by a navigator named Atlasov (1697-1699), who left behind a precise and detailed description of the characteristics of the indigenous population of Kamchatka.

Between 1711 and 1713, Antsiferov and Kuzmirevski explored several islands in the Kuril Archipelago. Many researchers specialized in the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering traveled north to the Bering Strait and south to Japan.

Peter the First also ordered geographical expeditions to the far northeastern edges, seeking a northeastern route leading to India and China, which was part of the expedition known as “the First Kamchatka Expedition,” led by Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirkov (1725-1730). Peter himself laid out directions for this expedition, whose primary aim was to find the meeting point of Europe and Asia.

During this expedition, parts of Russian territory were explored, most notably the Krest Bay and Provideniya Bay. This was the second time, approximately a century later, following the maritime expedition of Dezhnev, which discovered that bay linking the Pacific Ocean with the Arctic Ocean, thus confirming the existence of a connection between Asia and America. On the return journey, one of the Yomida Islands was explored.

After Peter the Great

Perhaps the most significant scientific event in the first half of the 18th century was the “Second Siberian Expedition” (1733-1743), led by Vitus Bering. This expedition entered the annals of Russian geographical discovery as the “Great Northern Expedition,” sometimes referred to as the “Pacific Siberian Expedition.”

The expedition consisted of several campaigns, involving a large number of explorers, not only Russians, with a total of 570 participants. Bering and Chirkov’s campaign aimed to explore the coasts of North America, during which the Commander Islands and Aleutian Islands were discovered.

The campaign led by Shpanberg aimed to map the Kuril Islands and advance towards Japan, and five campaigns were allocated to study the northern coasts of Russia focusing on mapping the shores extending from Arkhangelsk to the northeastern tip, and if possible, to Kamchatka.

The Role of the Russian Academy of Sciences

All these journeys were conducted under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, and many places in Siberia bore the names of the great scientific expedition leaders, including names of scientists like Chukoshkin, Brunichichev, Aftsen, and Lasinius. The academic campaign headed by naturalist Ivan Georgy Gmelin and historians Gerald and Friedrich Miller was considered the second scientific expedition, working in the Central Siberian Plateau and the areas surrounding Baikal, as well as behind Baikal and the Altai region.

Gmelin noted the following significant observation during his journey to Siberia reaching the Yenisei River:

“I did not feel I was here in Asia until I reached the Yenisei River; all the landscapes up to that point seemed European to me. But starting from the Yenisei River, to the east, south, and north, the land and scenery become markedly different, though we do not recognize their inherent power.”

In this context, Gmelin was prepared to consider that beyond the Yenisei marks the beginning of a distinct part of the world, meaning the Yenisei River is the dividing line between Europe and Asia.

One of Gmelin’s expedition students (1733-1736), the student Krasheninckoff, later became an academic and independently led a study mission to Kamchatka in 1737, during which he crossed Kamchatka nine times and conducted diverse research from geographical, geological, botanical, zoological, historical, ethnographic, and linguistic perspectives. One outcome of these journeys was the publication of “Description of the Land of Kamchatka,” which came to light shortly after his death.

“Description of the Land of Kamchatka” is considered one of the best in the scientific literature of the 18th century, providing valuable information about the relatively unexplored region, becoming an important source even until today. Upon its release, the book was quickly embraced and translated into four European languages, and it was reprinted multiple times in Russia and abroad.

Establishment of the Geography Department

In 1739, the Department of Geography was established within the Academy of Sciences, and by 1745 this department published “Atlas of the Russian Empire” with intermediate to high precision in its maps and high accuracy for the European part of Russia, employing coordinate grids for the first time.

The Petrine era witnessed the activity of Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686-1750), who specialized in mines and mineral resources, particularly in the Urals. His efforts led to the establishment of many factories and towns, marking him as one of the first Russian geographers.

As he was originally a historian, he emphasized the necessity of linking history with geography, advocating that “the text should accompany the map.”

Tatishchev published several studies on Russia and Siberia in the years (1739 and 1744), and he prepared an encyclopedia of Russian territories. He passed away while working on the letter “K” in the alphabet of the encyclopedia in 1793, and his encyclopedia contained much essential geographical information (concepts and definitions).

Lomonosov: The Century of Development

The mid-18th century can be termed as the “Era of Geography Development” in Russia, considering the emergence of the encyclopedic scientist Lomonosov, both for his direct contributions and the influence of his ideas on later generations.

As an encyclopedic scientist, Lomonosov studied many issues related to the theoretical foundations of geography, including the composition of the atmospheric layers, the idea of “ice cover” of the Earth, maritime and continental climates, ongoing changes and developments in the Earth’s crust, and the interactions between these external and internal forces.

Lomonosov put significant effort into gathering data, correcting, and documenting the first academic atlas of Russia. Under his supervision, the “Polar Map” was drawn, and he exerted considerable effort in the comprehensive study of the Arctic Ocean, based on scientific materials collected by the Kamchatka expedition, producing the first comprehensive description of the Arctic Ocean and its coasts in 1726. In this description, Lomonosov provided a detailed outline of ice movement and classification of sea ice while clarifying the origins of accumulated ice. He managed to organize a secret polar mission alongside Chichagov (a maritime navigator) to determine a northern route through Kamchatka, with a base established in Grumant (Spitsbergen).

After leading the Geography Department at the Academy of Sciences in 1758, Lomonosov became an organizer of geographical studies in Russia and cartographic and geodesic surveys.

With Lomonosov’s support, crucial geographical works about Kamchatka and the region extending from the Volga to Tobol emerged. Lomonosov established an organization for missions and requirements expected of applicants to conduct these missions, particularly in terms of their capacities in astronomical observation and understanding of environmental components from economic and cultural perspectives. This was one of the major achievements of the second half of the 18th century.

Ten Years of Organized Scientific Expeditions

The notable academic expeditions (1768-1774) were significant for geographical research in Russia, linking them in terms of idea and outcome with exceptional events in the scientific community. Berg wrote:

“Between 1768 and 1774, the Academy managed to cover all parts of this new sector of the world: Russia.” During these missions, new tasks were outlined for writing comprehensive scientific descriptions of the environment, mineral resources, and economic systems of major regions in the country, led by renowned scientists with diverse scientific backgrounds, including Palas, Libykhan, Gmelin, (the younger Gmelin, relative to the elder Gmelin), Ozurchkovsky, Zuyev, and Georgy Vark.

Palas is noted for his numerous travels in Siberia and European Russia, presenting many scientific theories, being the first to address new issues such as the origin of chernozem soil (black earth), reasons for the absence of forests in the steppes, fluctuations in the Caspian Sea level, the link between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, and comparisons between the Ural and Altai Mountains. He wrote about the impact of external and internal forces on mountain formation and concluded his journeys with a five-volume work titled “Travels in Various Provinces of the Russian State” (1773-1788).

In the mid-18th century, many efforts were made to find an artificial waterway through the northern rivers of European Russia. For these efforts, it was necessary to gather information on river depths, water freezing, and other related data. In light of this scientific demand, the book “Russian Hydrology” was published in 1773, which contained a wealth of information about rivers, lakes, and water wells.

Journeys to Distant Lands

In the first half of the 19th century, scientific exploration of Russian territories continued, spotlighting maritime journeys around the world. In 1837, academician Beer began a study of the island of Novaya Zemlya and was the first to investigate its fauna, flora, geological, and geographical features.

Beer connected the biological condition of the island with its surrounding environment, considering Novaya Zemlya a complex ecological system. Following this, he embarked on exploratory journeys that extended from Murmansk to the Karelian Peninsula in the Gulf of Finland, and across the areas around Moscow and the Volga to the Caspian Sea.

Notable phenomena and ideas studied in the Caspian Sea were attributed to him, including the hills bearing his name and “Beer’s Law” concerning the reasons for the similarity of river valleys.

In 1840, zoologist Evremov published the first part of his work “Natural History of the Eibzh Region,” which essentially represented a comprehensive geographical study of the steppes and desert-like areas of the Lower Volga region.

It is also worth mentioning that in 1842, Chigachov studied the Altai region in terms of its flora, mountains, and rivers, in addition to exploring the Kuznetsk Basin and analyzing coal deposits in the region.

Between 1842 and 1845, at the request of the Academy of Sciences, the Siberian mission (chaired by Medidorov) was organized to achieve two goals:

1. To study organic life in the Taymir region.
2. To study permafrost.

Raising the Russian Flag

Nevilisky continued his research in the southeast in 1849, when he crossed the Nasareski Strait, confirming that Sakhalin was indeed a complete island (he raised the Russian flag over its southern part). When appointed director of the Amur expedition in 1850, Nevilisky organized scientific research in the Amur Basin, planting the Russian flag there and establishing the “Nikalivostok Amur” fortress in the river’s lower reaches. He negotiated border agreements with the Chinese in the Russian Far East and raised the Russian flag overhead.

Scientific research continued in the northeastern corners of Russia throughout the 19th century. Between 1821 and 1823, two scientific missions were organized to study the modern regions of this territory, leading to the discovery of new lands, including “Zemlya Andreyeva” and “Zemlya Novosibirsk.” The missions were led by Ango and Mzangil, both of whom later became naval admirals.

Russian Geographical Society

Following these expeditions, the Russian Geographical Society, established in St. Petersburg in 1845, would take on a crucial role, having similar associations formed in many countries worldwide since the 1820s (like those in Paris, Berlin, and the British Royal Society in London). The Russian geographical society was one of these pioneering associations, and it was founded by famous scientists and navigators, such as Litke (who presided over the society for nearly 21 years), Beer, Mzangil, and Arsenyev. Following years, branches of the society were opened in several Russian cities, including Irkutsk and Omsk.

The founders of the Russian geographical society set as their primary objective the exploration of Russian territories, although the society organized missions across the world (Central Asia, New Guinea, Iran, the Pacific, and the Arctic). The most prominent regions the society sent expeditions to included: the Urals, Altai, Baikal, Sakhalin, Kamchatka, and Chukotka. Areas like Tajikistan, Pamir Alai, Tian Shan, Aral, Balkhash, and Ik Kul, that are currently beyond Russia’s borders, were then part of its southern territory.

The Russian Geographical Society was the first to explore Central Asia before the Europeans. It also directed scientific missions to Siberia and the Far East, led by Mak (1853-1859). Since the late 18th century, various scientific associations were established, such as the “Charitable Economic Society” and the “Moscow Society for Environmental Experimentation.”

Major Expeditions and Practical Goals

The second half of the 19th century witnessed a concentrated activity in the study of Russian lands, coinciding with significant changes in the social and economic life of the state. This was also the era of remarkable figures in Russian geography.

In 1861, the state adopted the principle of agricultural reform: the abolition of serfdom. Following this, studies began on local issues, including the development of industry, agricultural economy, trade, and the construction of roads and their extension.

The need for applied aspects stimulated the collection of precise information on various environmental aspects and characteristics (mineral resources, topography, developmental agricultural potentials, and fur and timber gathering, etc.). This required the development of specialized scientific missions in fields like geology, climate, botany, zoology, and geomorphology, resulting in the accumulation of substantial data, its analysis, and deriving generalizations and comprehensive judgments. At this point, geography began to diversify, intersecting with fields like climatology, hydrology, geomorphology, oceanography, soil sciences, and more. This diversification occurred not only in Russia but was a characteristic of science during that period. Though it was a civil association, its board members engaged in studying the environment, its inhabitants, and its economy, actively participating in geographical work during this time.

For more than 40 years (1873-1914), the notable geographer Semyonov Tian-Shansky presided over the geographical society, contributing significantly not just to the study of Central Asia but also in organizing the geographical scientific missions and research activities that aimed to inform the Russian society about their country’s geography. Under his editorial leadership, a multi-volume work titled “Russia… A Comprehensive Geographical Description of Our Homeland” (1899-1914) was published. Among those whom Tian-Shansky entrusted with scientific works were prominent scientists such as Chikanoisky, Chersky, Krapotkin, and Vaikov Shakalavsky.

Chikanoisky focused on geological research in Central Siberia, especially in the Aylonik and Tunguska Rivers, the Irkutsk region, and parts of Yakutia. He was the first to lay the foundations for the scientific geological study of Central Siberia.

Chersky contributed greatly to the study of the Lake Baikal environment and its surroundings, dying while conducting some of his research in the Kolyma River basin in 1892.

Krapotkin led a scientific expedition for the geographical society to Baikal (1864-1866), where he studied the Eastern Tian region, the Amur River, and focused his research on Eastern Siberia; his studies extended to permafrost regions not only in Siberia but also in the “Novaya Zemlya,” “Franz Josef Land,” and “Severlandia.”

Tillou was engaged with the topographical mapping of the European section of Russia, and his map served as a base when establishing road networks in this area.

Dookchev was one of Russia’s most prominent ecologists whose ecological interests were broad, encompassing soil, geology, geomorphology, and he is credited with laying the groundwork for soil classification studies based on their origins. His most important research focused on the “Russian Chernozem” (1883), treating soil as an ecological body, a holistic environmental component shaped by numerous factors that are elements of the environment, thereby establishing the foundations of soil science. Between 1882 and 1895, he conducted three major scientific expeditions to assess lands in the forest and steppe environments and their economic uses.

Krasnov was a student of Dookchev, learned from him to study the ecosystem as an integrated whole without separating its elements, opposed narrow specialized disciplines, and in his works offered examples asserting that geography fundamentally studies “integration and complexity in the environment.” Key regions Krasnov studied include: Altai, the Caspian steppes, the western Caucasus, Primorsky, and Sakhalin, alongside his travels through various parts of the world.

Vysotsky provided important studies on soils, the steppe steppes, reasons for their forest absence, focusing on plant classifications and the roles of human activities in the environment, and after 12 years completed the soil environmental observation initiated by Dookchev.

Tankilov studied the steppe, tundra, and marshes in the European part of Russia.

Marozov, the founder of the Forestry School, considered the forest a complete geographical phenomenon, a complex ecosystem linking thousands of threads to all components of the environmental complex.

The development of capitalism in Russia by the late 19th century supported the advancement of Siberia and the Far East. In 1891-1892, the construction of the Great Siberian Railway began, linking Siberia and the Far East with central Russian regions, attracting geologists who capitalized on this railway movement to discover significant economic resources, notably coal, essential for operating the trains. Geological studies were also conducted to find gold and achieved notable success.

From 1880 onwards, geography departments began to emerge in Russian universities, the first of which was titled “Geography and Ethnography” at Moscow University in 1884, followed by the establishment of the “Geography and Anthropology” department at St. Petersburg University in 1887.

Dmitry Anuchin (1843-1923) managed the Geography Department at Moscow University for a long period, having mentored many prominent geographs in Russia. Among his scholarly contributions were his studies on the sources of the Volga River, marking a pioneer in the field of limnology (the study of lakes). At the beginning of the 20th century, research and studies focusing on “Asian Russia” continued.

The Soviet Era: Lenin and Stalin

This period was characterized by extensive, organized work aimed at direct practical goals, with the state emerging as the principal actor through its massive efforts, rather than through the limited contributions of geographers and explorers.

To support its scientific projects, the state established scientific institutions during this time, including the Hydrological Institute (1919), Geological and Topographical Survey (1919), Geonavigation Institute (1922), Soil Institute (1925), Northern Institute (1925), and Meteorological and Hydrological Services (1929), among others. In 1918, the Geographical Educational Institute was opened, which later became the Geography Faculty of St. Petersburg State University in 1925.

The state called upon geographers to participate in governmental plans and other state projects, leading to collaboration between geographers and other specialists from various branches of science such as geology, soil science, botany, zoology, etc. Scientific and exploratory work extended across different Russian territories, with particular attention to the Far East and Siberia, as well as the Arctic Ocean basin; the goal was to search for northern sea routes, leading to the establishment of a specialized institute, the Arctic Institute (which later became the “Arctic and Antarctic Institute”). In 1932, the Central Administration of the Northern Sea Route was founded, aiming primarily to study maritime and northern transport routes and their nearby coasts.

During the period from 1920 to 1940, many scientific missions were directed to polar regions, particularly the islands, along with climatic studies of the winds, storms, ice, and animal life in those areas.

Geographers, alongside other specialists, participated in studying the economic and mineral resources in virgin lands of various Russian regions, focusing on resources like oil, gas, gold, and diamonds. They contributed to scientific studies that led to the draining of lakes, the establishment of new cities, and the construction of terrestrial transport routes, among other applied developmental solutions.

Prominent geographical names of this period include “Lev Semyonovich Berg” (1876-1950), who made diverse scientific contributions spanning natural geography, limnology, climatology, soil science, geomorphology, paleogeography, zoology, historical geography, and notably left substantial influences in each of these fields. Berg’s key contribution was in delineating geographical zones, famously asserting as early as 1913 that “geography is the science of landscapes.”

Another notable scientist during this period was Andrey Aleksandrovich Grigoriev (1883-1968), credited with introducing the concept of “geographical shell” in 1932, defining it as the material of geographical research. Through this concept, Grigoriev conducted many studies concerning the processes in natural geography, which paralleled the European notion of the “biological shell” (biosphere).

In the post-Stalin era, the study of physical geography regions advanced, accompanied by the production of books, volumes, wall maps, and general and specialized atlases, culminating in the publication of the renowned extensive work “Atlas of the Soviet Union.”