Contributions of the Frankfurt School in Reshaping the Concept of International Security

The Frankfurt School is one of the most prominent intellectual currents that significantly contributed to the development of social and political criticism in the 20th century. In the context of international relations, it has had a major impact on redefining the concept of international security; this school has allowed for a broader and deeper understanding of the factors affecting global security through innovative critical approaches. This research examines the role of the Frankfurt School in establishing the critical foundations of the security concept, tracing how it has helped transform international thinking toward a broader understanding that goes beyond traditional borders focused on military power and state security.

The Frankfurt School, known for its critical orientation, challenged traditional propositions in international security that were limited to military threats only by broadening the analytical framework to include the economic, social, and cultural structures that influence global security formation. This shift has allowed for a deeper understanding of contemporary security challenges such as poverty, inequality, and climate change, emphasizing structural dimensions that exceed mere military analysis.

The aim of the research is to study how the Frankfurt School has influenced the redefinition of the concept of international security, analyzing real-world models of applying these critical perspectives in countries such as South Africa, India, and the Maldives. The research will demonstrate how these critical approaches can provide comprehensive frameworks for addressing current security challenges more flexibly and effectively, highlighting the contributions of Frankfurt critical thought in shaping new perceptions of international security.

Importance of the Research

The significance of this research lies in shedding light on the critical contributions of the Frankfurt School in reshaping the concept of international security, contributions that gain increasing importance in light of contemporary geopolitical, economic, and environmental transformations. The research addresses the gap found between traditional propositions regarding international security, which often focus on military and political aspects, and the modern needs for a broader and comprehensive understanding that includes structural, economic, social, and environmental dimensions impacting security. It also highlights the importance of social and cultural criticism in analyzing contemporary threats facing states and societies, demonstrating how these critical visions can provide more comprehensive and effective solutions to current security challenges.

Research Objectives

1. Analyze the Intellectual Contributions of the Frankfurt School: The research aims to clarify how Frankfurt criticism has reshaped the concept of international security through a comprehensive critical approach that considers social, economic, and political structures.
2. Provide a New Critical Vision of International Security: The research seeks to explore how the Frankfurt School goes beyond traditional propositions regarding international security by expanding the concept to include cultural, environmental, and economic aspects.
3. Study Applied Models: The research aims to apply the critical perspectives of the Frankfurt School to the realities of countries such as South Africa, India, and the Maldives, highlighting how these approaches can contribute to addressing contemporary security challenges.
4. Develop a Comprehensive Theoretical Framework: The research aims to develop a comprehensive theoretical framework based on Frankfurt criticism for analyzing international security and providing recommendations on how to utilize these visions to enhance global security in holistic and sustainable ways.
5. Contribute to Academic Discourse: The research aims to enrich the academic discourse on security concepts and social criticism, opening new avenues for studying international security through more comprehensive and diverse approaches.

Main Problematic

How has the Frankfurt School contributed to reshaping the concept of international security and developing critical perceptions of this concept through the analysis of structural, social, and cultural factors in the context of contemporary security challenges?

Sub-Questions Under the Main Problematic:

1. How does critical theory reshape the concept of international security in the face of structural challenges?
2. What are the fundamental differences between traditional and critical theories in addressing international security?
3. How does critical theory contribute to providing a more comprehensive vision of security challenges arising from technology?

Main Hypothesis

The Frankfurt School seeks to redefine the concept of international security by providing a critical framework that focuses on structural, economic, and cultural factors, leading to the development of new perceptions of security that go beyond traditional dimensions and allow for effective addressing of current security challenges in various international contexts.

Section One: The Frankfurt School: Intellectual Origins and Theoretical Foundations of Social Criticism

1. The Frankfurt School: Origins and Development

Critical theory emerged as a critical theoretical framework aimed at restructuring and rebuilding theorization in the field of international relations in a way that is ontologically, epistemologically, and methodologically distinct from traditional interpretive approaches. This theory analyzes power, identity, culture, and economics from a critical perspective, allowing for a deeper understanding of the factors influencing international relations. The means of analysis and interpretation within this theory are diverse.

The Frankfurt School originated as a project for constructing social philosophy, drawing legitimacy directly from Marxist and Hegelian philosophy. This philosophical-social project, announced by Horkheimer in his inaugural lecture, serves as a general framework for the efforts of all pioneers of the school across various generations. Despite differing philosophical propositions among these pioneers, this variation does not imply a lack of communication between the generations of the school. Today, the Frankfurt School occupies a significant place due to the richness and diversity of its writings, which engage various major philosophical references on one side and keep pace with the intellectual, social, and political transformations of our contemporary world on the other.

The roots of critical theory in international relations trace back to Marxist thought and the works emerging from the Frankfurt School. This theory intersects significantly with world-systems theory, providing a critical analysis of global political and economic structures. Kimberly Hutchings indicates that there are at least four positions considered models of critical theory in the field of international relations, where these positions focus on analyzing power, identity, culture, and economics critically, delivering diverse insights into understanding and analyzing international politics comprehensively and interactively.

Diverse critical schools exist within the realm of international relations, as evidenced by various representatives and thinkers who fall under these theoretical trends. Among these are:

• One of the prominent representatives of neo-Gramscianism is Robert Cox, who provided critical analyses in the field of political economy and global politics. Cox is considered a prominent figure in this critical school, presenting numerous new ideas about the impact of hegemony and power in the international system.
• Regarding normative theory, Andrew Linklater stands out, drawing from the works of the Frankfurt School, particularly those of Jürgen Habermas. Linklater focuses on philosophical and sociological analyses of international politics, endowing his theory with a distinctive philosophical dimension.
• In the post-modernist approach, figures like Richard Ashley, James Der Derian, and Jens Bartelson represent this critical trend, relying on ideas from post-structuralist thinkers like Foucault and Derrida. These thinkers emphasize analyses of power and language in international politics, reflecting their uniqueness in theoretical presentations.
• In the context of feminism, Jen Elshtain, Cynthia Enloe, and Christine Sylvester, along with Rebeka Grant and Ann Tickner, have provided critical analyses inspired by Marxist thought and the Frankfurt School, focusing on gender and political analysis in international relations. Their approaches are characterized by offering a critical analysis of traditional judgments and interpretations in international politics, representing a core aspect of the development of critical theory in this field.

Overall, there are two main groups of influences on the emergence and development of critical theory in international relations. The first is the critical influence of the Frankfurt School, and the second is the life and works of Antonio Gramsci; those influenced by Gramsci took an economic-political direction, while those influenced by the Frankfurt School adopted a political normative direction.

The outlines of critical theory first crystallized in Max Horkheimer’s article in 1937 entitled “Traditional and Critical Theory,” gaining a strong influence later in the 1980s through the efforts of Andrew Linklater and Robert Cox.

The essence of critical theory lies in the problematic nature of the prevailing global system, adopting an oppositional stance that critiques the general framework of this system through critical analysis. Critical thinkers strive to reconsider the rules and principles upon which this system relies, how they are interpreted and formed, including revisiting the origins and legitimacy of political and social institutions and thinking on their evolution over time.

Robert Cox is considered one of the thinkers who reexamined and questioned the foundations and legitimacy of these institutions, emphasizing that the process of change is a fundamental part of the historical evolution of the global system. Thus, the attention to the matter specifically revolves around questioning how existing social or global systems emerge and how the standards, institutions, and practices that govern them appear. Critics also focus on analyzing the forces that may have the liberating capacity to change or transform this prevailing system.

Critical theory clearly aims to advance toward liberating humanity from the constraints imposed by positivist theories, which focused exclusively on uncovering existing truths and patterns in a pre-existing independent external world. This implies that truths can be uncovered and perceived independently of the social framework in which the perception occurs. In this context, critical theory seeks to analyze power, hegemony, and think critically about the social structure that shapes and influences the formation of facts and knowledge. Moreover, critical thought also aims at achieving freedom and equality on a global scale by creating new forms of political community that transcend the limited framework represented by the modern nation-state. This orientation is attributed to the constraints that nation-states impose on the achievement of these two goals; critical theory posits that existing national structures are inadequate for achieving freedom and equality comprehensively and justly. Thus, the role of the critical legislator consists of two main aspects: the first pertains to restructuring the modern state and the system of states by developing institutions that transcend national sovereignty and are higher than merely national scope, by stripping the state of authorities that it considers exclusive, and replacing its international governance system. The goal is to deprive the state of its absolute powers and to implement an international governance system that operates globally.

The second aspect concerns increasing respect for cultural diversity at the global level in order to achieve a concordance between the citizen’s duties as a citizen and his or her duties as a human being in the first place. This aspect aims to move toward developing new forms of political organization that embrace cultural pluralism and respect human and citizen rights equally, working to enhance dialogue and understanding between different cultures in order to build more inclusive and just societies.

Through this manner, critical legislators seek to achieve profound transformations in the global system, whether through reforming existing political structures or through enhancing understanding and cooperation among various cultures at the global level.

2. Basic Foundations of Critical Theory

Every theory in political and social fields reflects a particular social interest; it is created and shaped based on the factors and forces influencing it. The critical researcher has the responsibility to uncover these relationships and social interests underlying established political and social theories. Understanding a theory cannot be complete without its historical context, which requires examining the social contradictions that have influenced and transformed it. The theory must be scrutinized in the context of the time and place in which it emerged, and how it was influenced by the surrounding social and historical circumstances. Absolute truths do not exist in the realm of social theory, nor is there a universal theory capable of explaining social reality; this contradicts the dialectical nature of humanity. The role of the critical researcher is to strive for the greatest possible alignment between theory and the interests of the social majority, which are often embodied in specific social classes.

Based on this context, critical theory refrains from accepting three fundamental hypotheses of positivism, which include:

1. Rejection of the Existence of Objective External Reality: The external reality is not considered an independent entity that can be analyzed neutrally and objectively; rather, it is understood to be influenced by various social and cultural forces.
2. Rejection of the Distinction between Subjective and Objective: It is considered that knowledge and facts are not mere neutral products reflecting reality as it is; they are shaped and affected by the surrounding social, political, and cultural factors.
3. Rejection of Social Sciences Liberated from Values: Values, beliefs, and social interests are an integral part of the social research and analysis process and cannot be separated from theory and research practice.

Robert Cox was among the pioneers in the field of international theory; his works contributed to challenging and criticizing the foundational hypotheses of neorealism due to their deep commitment to normative standards. He states, “Theories are always for someone and for some purpose; all theories have an ideology, and these ideologies stem from a situation in time and place, particularly the social and political time and place. The world is viewed from a perspective of knowledge in terms of nation or social class, in terms of hegemony or dependency, of rising or waning power, through past experiences and hopes and future expectations.”

Section Two: Critical Theory in Confronting Traditional Security: Comparisons and Contributions

1. Critical Theory Within Security Studies

In the early 1990s, critical international theory was added to the field of security studies. Ken Booth contributed critical security studies that are considered an important contribution in this field, known as “Critical Security Studies.” Critical theory began with a comprehensive critique of all aspects of traditional theory, particularly realism, regarding the state as the sole fundamental concept and the presumed rational principles underlying it, the analysis of international wars and understanding human nature, among others.

Ken Booth considers that the concept of security is basically connected to the predominant and accepted discourse about threats, which reflects a specific political structure known as security policy. He also pointed out the subjectivity in estimating these threats, as they always reflect a specific point of view, which makes them carry meanings and implications that vary across time and societies. Booth relied on Cox’s statement that “theory is always for someone, for some purpose,” asserting that definitions of security and threats fundamentally derive from the psychological processes of perception and misperception associated with them, along with the effects imposed by certain political viewpoints.

Accordingly, critical theory proponents view the concept of security as a derivative term carrying political implications. Booth states, in this context, “The idea that security is a derivative term is fundamental to a critical theory of security, and it suffices to say that deepening includes uncovering the idea that the outcomes of security (policies, situations…) derive from the different meanings of the feature and goal of politics.”

In responding to questions concerning who must ensure security, the threats, and the possible means, critics have refuted the idea proposed by neorealists that the state is responsible for protecting core values from external military threats. For critics, there is a wide range of threats that challenge security, including environmental, economic threats, poverty, diseases, political tyranny, and more. Advocates of critical theory argue that the individual or human being should be the unit of reference for analysis, rather than the state, which after the Cold War, according to Daniel Bell’s view, became too small to deal with major problems and too large to effectively cope with minor issues. Often, the state becomes one of the most significant sources of threat to individuals’ security. Moreover, the difficulty of distinguishing between real threats and imagined ones, along with the challenge of differentiating between self-assessment and objective assessment, renders security a relative concept. As a result, Booth pointed to the necessity of seeking security through liberatory policies that help individuals or groups overcome structural oppression and economic conditions surrounding them, such as poverty, wars, diseases, and others. Booth describes liberation as a political discourse that seeks to protect individuals from constraints that limit their ability to execute their choices freely while also considering the freedom of others. Liberation provides a triadic framework for politics; it is viewed as a philosophical harbor for knowledge, a theory for societal development, and a practice of resisting injustice. Consequently, liberation is regarded as both a theoretical and philosophical harbor aimed at exploring humanity.

From Ken Booth’s perspective, liberation is fundamental to the global critical security theory, which is synonymous with the concept of security. Booth interprets security as the absence of threats, while liberation means freeing individuals and groups from constraints that hinder their freedom to make choices freely. Among these constraints are threats of wars, poverty, poor education, and political oppression. Booth emphasizes that security and liberation are two sides of the same coin; liberation produces security, not power or order.

Generally, defining the concept of security requires an understanding of the concept of threats and their interaction with international and regional transformations; these transformations have led to changes in the sources of threats, raising questions about uncertainty and making it difficult to identify sources of threats accurately. As a result, the concept of security has become a subject of debate in international relations, characterized by ambiguity and disagreement among specialists regarding its definition and meaning.

2. Comparison Between Critical Theory and Other Security Theories

To understand the pivotal role of critical theory in security studies, it should be compared with major other theories such as realism, liberalism, and constructivism. Realism is one of the most prominent traditional security theories, focusing on the concept of survival in a chaotic international system, viewing military power as the primary means to achieve stability. However, critical theory criticizes this narrow approach, arguing that the excessive focus on power and coercion overlooks social and economic dimensions that may be the fundamental cause of insecurity. On the other hand, liberalism relies on international cooperation and multilateral institutions to ensure security; however, critical theory reveals the shortcomings of this cooperation, pointing out that these frameworks often serve the economic interests of major powers at the expense of developing countries. In contrast, constructivism, which focuses on constructing identities and security discourses, intersects with critical theory in its critique of existing structures, yet critical theory adds a deeper dimension focusing on political economy and cultural hegemony, enabling it to provide a more comprehensive explanation of the security phenomenon.

The Frankfurt School is linked to other security theories through its radical critique of traditional security perceptions, such as realism and liberalism, centered on military power and the nation-state. While realism sees security primarily concerning the survival of the state in a chaotic international environment, and liberalism promotes the role of cooperation between states and international institutions in achieving security, the Frankfurt School provides a comprehensive perspective that considers economic, social, and environmental dimensions that affect individuals and communities. Through its critique of global capitalism and unequal economic relations, the school views modern security threats, such as social inequalities and environmental degradation, as products of prevailing political and economic structures. Thus, critical theory contributes to expanding the concept of security to encompass non-traditional structural threats, making it an essential element in contemporary discussions about human and critical security.

Unique Contributions of Critical Theory

Critical theory distinguishes itself from other security theories with its ability to provide a critical and comprehensive analysis of the authoritative structures that shape and define security concepts. While traditional theories such as realism and liberalism focus on the protection of the state and the security of its borders from external threats, critical theory redefines the concept of security by highlighting the human, economic, and social dimensions that directly affect individuals and communities. Critical theory does not merely question how security policies are formed; it also inquires about the forces benefiting from these policies and the hidden purposes behind the adoption of these security concepts.

Through this critical framework, critical theory offers an alternative vision revealing that security is often used as a tool to reinforce the control of dominant powers over the international system. It dismantles ideologies that justify and fuel class and ethnic divisions, showing that unjust economic and political structures contribute to the creation of security threats, both within states and internationally. Critical theory emphasizes that achieving true security does not solely depend on enhancing military capabilities or securing borders but requires addressing the social and economic disparities that generate conflicts and lead to instability. The observation is that traditional security policies often deepen the gaps between rich and poor nations and among social classes within states, rather than reducing them.

The Frankfurt School adds an additional dimension to this argument through its critical analysis of the economic and social structures that constitute the source of security threats. According to this school, threats do not arise solely from external forces or military actors but also from the unjust structures embedded within the global capitalist system. This perspective is a pivotal contribution to expanding the concept of security to include economic, social, and cultural aspects, thereby transcending traditional theories that focused only on military threats and inter-state conflicts.

By analyzing the global capitalist economic system, the Frankfurt School introduces the concept of “human security,” a new framework aimed at addressing issues such as economic inequality, poverty, and human rights violations, which the school considers key factors impacting global stability. Unlike realist and liberal theories that tend to concentrate on military power and international cooperation among states, critical theory emphasizes social justice and the redistribution of power as essential means to achieve more sustainable global security; it posits that true security threats originate from social injustice and the persistence of economic exploitation, making it imperative to address these foundational issues as a prerequisite for achieving comprehensive and sustainable human security.

In light of this approach, critical theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding modern security challenges; this framework transcends the traditional understanding of military conflicts to include the unconventional structural dimensions that deeply impact the lives of individuals and communities.

Rapid technological developments, particularly in cybersecurity and artificial intelligence, have dramatically transformed the nature of security challenges faced by states in the modern age. Modern technology is not merely a tool contributing to social and economic progress; it has also become a source of new and complex threats to international security. These challenges necessitate new approaches to understand their ramifications on the global security system. In this context, these challenges can be linked to critical theories, such as those of the Frankfurt School, to provide a critical framework that highlights the dimensions of these challenges and their connections to the structural power frameworks.

Cybersecurity Challenges

One of the most prominent security challenges arising from technology is cybersecurity, which has become a central issue in international politics. The widespread adoption of digital technology has complicated the security landscape; cyber attacks are now capable of disrupting vital infrastructure of states, such as energy networks, communications, and banking services. These developments can be linked to critical theory from the Frankfurt School, which calls for examining economic and political hegemony within the framework of modern technologies. For example, a few major companies dominate most digital technologies; this creates gaps in access to information and enhances digital hegemony at both national and international levels. This hegemony leads to threats at the cybersecurity level, as states or large corporations may exploit these technologies to serve their interests, posing a threat to national security.

Artificial Intelligence Challenges

Artificial intelligence is one of the most influential technological developments impacting the global security system. It is utilized in several domains such as data monitoring, security predictions, and decision-making in wars and policies. However, these applications raise serious concerns regarding privacy, transparency, and accountability. From the perspective of critical theories, artificial intelligence can be seen as a new tool for social and political domination. Despite the potential benefits of AI in enhancing security, its use in applications such as mass surveillance and individual spying opens avenues for threats related to social and political control. This phenomenon can be explained through the framework of social criticism, which indicates that new technologies are often employed by major powers to entrench new patterns of control and hegemony.

Structural Effects of Technology on International Security

Critical theories, including those presented by the Frankfurt School, seek to analyze the structural frameworks contributing to the formulation of security policies. In the context of technological challenges, these theories focus on how technology influences the reallocation of power and resources at both local and international levels. For instance, major companies like Google and Facebook control individuals’ personal data on a large scale, enhancing their political and economic influence and posing a new threat to national security. From this perspective, critical theories emphasize the gaps between states and large corporations, and how these gaps affect security stability, especially in light of the uneven flow of technology worldwide.

Technological developments such as cybersecurity and artificial intelligence have reshaped the security challenges facing states in the modern age. By linking these challenges to critical theories, we can understand how these technologies contribute to enhancing hegemony and power at both national and international levels while simultaneously raising new issues regarding privacy and surveillance. This necessitates the development of new theoretical and practical frameworks to keep pace with these challenges and open new avenues for understanding the relationship between technology and security within the context of the contemporary global system.

Criticisms of Critical Theory

While critical theory, particularly in the context of the Frankfurt School, is one of the prominent intellectual currents that contributed to redefining security and international relations, it has faced numerous criticisms touching on both its practical and intellectual aspects. This section outlines the most prominent criticisms directed at this theory, analyzing each point individually.

1. Weak Practical Applicability in Addressing Direct Security Issues

One of the most significant criticisms directed at critical theory is its weak applicability in addressing the actual and direct security issues faced by nations and communities. This theory is characterized by its complex and philosophical approach, making it difficult to use as a practical framework for developing applicable security strategies in real contexts. While critical theory focuses on critically analyzing social, economic, and political systems, it does not offer specific practical tools to deal with immediate security threats such as armed conflicts, terrorism, or cyber-attacks. This leads to a criticism that the theory remains in the realm of pure academic analysis without making a real contribution to solving the daily security problems facing states.

2. Excessive Focus on Philosophical Analysis without Providing Concrete Practical Solutions

The second criticism directed at critical theory pertains to its excessive focus on philosophical and theoretical analysis, making it difficult to translate these analyses into actionable practical solutions. Critical theory offers deep readings of social concepts and phenomena, such as power, hegemony, and social justice, but rarely moves beyond this philosophical framework to direct practical applications in security policy or international relations. For instance, in areas like war, terrorism, or cybersecurity, critical theory lacks detailed strategies or tangible approaches to effectively address these issues. The theory focuses on critiquing major social structures, such as capitalist systems or imperial power, without suggesting concrete steps to mitigate the negative impacts of these structures in the security context.

3. Inability to Address Rapidly Evolving Security Challenges Such as Terrorism and Cybersecurity

The third and most obvious criticism of critical theory lies in its inability to cope with emerging and rapidly evolving security challenges such as global terrorism and cybersecurity. In an age characterized by complex and rapidly evolving security threats, like cyber-attacks targeting sensitive infrastructures or transnational terrorist organizations, critical theory remains insufficient in providing clear frameworks or strategies to confront these challenges. Furthermore, the emphasis on structural and major political factors may lead to neglecting technological or tactical security aspects that have become central to contemporary security policies. Thus, critical theory lacks the adaptability to these rapid changes and recent developments, making it less effective in providing solutions for contemporary security crises.

Despite the significance of critical theory in providing in-depth analyses of social and political conditions, it faces strong criticisms related to its practical application in addressing direct security issues. Its focus on philosophy and theoretical analysis without offering concrete practical solutions, coupled with its inability to engage with modern security challenges such as terrorism and cybersecurity, highlights the need to reconsider how to integrate this theory with other theoretical and practical frameworks for providing more comprehensive and realistic security solutions.

Section Three: The Frankfurt School and Global Security Challenges: Critical Perspectives and Practical Applications

This section addresses six models, three of which are international and three Arab, reflecting the applications of the Frankfurt School in confronting global security challenges. First: the economic and social model, which focuses on studying economic disparities and their impact on stability in countries like South Africa, where social gaps are a major source of security threats. Second: the cultural and identity model, which reflects India’s experience; where ethnic and religious divisions demonstrate how they can affect social security and increase internal conflicts. Lastly, the environmental model highlights the challenges facing countries like the Maldives due to climate change, illustrating how environmental risks can negatively impact national security.

Through the exploration of these models, this section aims to provide critical perspectives and practical applications that help in understanding how to utilize the insights of the Frankfurt School to build sustainable security strategies. It becomes evident that security cannot be understood in isolation from economic, social, and cultural contexts, necessitating a rethinking of current policies and developing innovative strategies that contribute to achieving comprehensive and interconnected security.

1. The Economic and Social Security Model: South Africa

South Africa is a prominent model in analyzing security challenges associated with economic and social disparities, challenges attributed to the legacy of the apartheid system. This system has left profound social and economic effects that perpetuate gaps between different social classes, with a small number of individuals continuing to control economic resources while a large part of the population, particularly of African descent, suffers from extreme poverty. As a result, crime rates and social conflicts increase, threatening domestic stability and social security.

Through the critical perspective of the Frankfurt School, it is possible to examine the social and economic policies that were established following the dismantling of the apartheid system to reduce economic and social gaps among different groups. The focus on social justice, which includes improving education and healthcare, represents one of the core pillars for achieving comprehensive security. Implementing strategic developmental programs, such as those targeting educational and health opportunities for impoverished groups, can significantly contribute to addressing the challenges faced by the community regarding poverty and unemployment. Enhancing job opportunities and improving educational levels can help foster social stability and reduce tensions.

The success of these programs requires a holistic approach involving cooperation between the government, the private sector, and civil society, with an emphasis on the necessity of sustainable funding to ensure the continuity of developmental initiatives. Additionally, integrating economic and social dimensions into security policies does not only enhance security but also contributes to building a just and sustainable society that guarantees individuals’ rights and their essential needs, contributing to long-term security.

2. The Cultural and Identity Security Model: India

India exemplifies a complex case reflecting the interaction between cultural and religious diversity and the security challenges associated with ethnic and religious divisions. Despite diversity being a source of cultural and social strength, it simultaneously exacerbates conflicts and contending identities that can sometimes lead to violence and internal conflicts. Extremist ideologies have exacerbated these tensions, making social security a threatened status.

Applying the cultural model within the critical perspective of the Frankfurt School allows focusing on the necessity of enhancing cultural dialogue between different communities as a fundamental tool for transforming these tensions into opportunities for understanding. Dialogue serves as an effective means of bridging divergent viewpoints, thus reducing the risk of conflicts. Therefore, implementing educational programs aimed at promoting shared cultural values like tolerance and mutual respect, as well as constructive interaction among individuals from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, becomes essential.

Furthermore, it is crucial to organize workshops and education programs within schools and universities that familiarize students with different cultures and guide youth toward appreciating diversity. This fosters an open environment encouraging constructive dialogue and reducing the risks associated with extremist ideologies. By implementing these educational policies, India contributes to building a secure and cohesive society that achieves peaceful coexistence and enhances social security.

3. The Environmental Security Model: The Maldives

The Maldives is among the countries most vulnerable to security challenges arising from climate change, especially concerning rising sea levels. This challenge poses a grave threat to national security in the Maldives, contributing to increased flooding and population displacement, adversely affecting the community’s stability and economy. Hence, there is a pressing need to apply the environmental security model, which enhances the country’s ability to adapt to the impacts of climate change and ensure the sustainability of natural resources.

This model requires comprehensive strategies to improve infrastructure for flood resistance, such as designing buildings and roads in ways compatible with climatic changes, in addition to upgrading drainage systems. Effective rainwater harvesting techniques and efficient management of water resources should also be developed to bolster the capacity to cope with freshwater shortages. Such environmental strategies contribute to enhancing environmental security, an integral part of national security.

Through the critical perspective of the Frankfurt School, it becomes possible to examine the economic and social structures that may exacerbate the impacts of climate change. An effective response to these challenges necessitates active community involvement in political decision-making related to climate change. Building this type of community engagement ensures that adopted policies are not only inclusive but also effective in addressing climate challenges. Thus, investing in these environmental policies enhances national security in the Maldives and contributes to securing social and economic stability sustainably.

Arab Experiences: An Empirical Study of the Frankfurt Model

1. Sudan: The Impact of Armed Conflicts and Ethnic Struggles on Human Security

Sudan faces significant security challenges due to ongoing armed conflicts and ethnic struggles that threaten human security. One of the core issues in Sudan is the unequal distribution of resources, where certain regions benefit from natural resources and targeted development policies, while other areas, particularly in the peripheries and remote regions, remain economically and socially marginalized. This disparity in resource distribution fuels feelings of division and discrimination among different ethnic groups, leading to a surge in armed conflicts.

In this context, Frankfurt School concepts can be applied to understand the root causes of this situation, which are closely linked to economic and social hegemony. According to this school, armed conflicts are not merely power struggles; they are the result of a failure of the social and economic system to provide equal opportunities for all community members. Thus, security in Sudan requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the unequal distribution of resources and promotes economic and social justice.

Achieving sustainable human security in Sudan necessitates addressing the structural factors contributing to perpetuating conflicts, such as poverty, marginalization, and lack of justice in resource allocation. Within the Frankfurt understanding, security policies should include developmental visions that work on improving social justice and achieving economic balance to minimize ethnic and racial crises. Only by addressing these issues can sustainable social security be built.

2. Libya: The Impact of Social and Tribal Divisions After the Revolution on Community Security

Since the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi’s regime in 2011, Libya has seen a deterioration in security stability due to deep tribal and social divisions that have escalated following the revolution. In the absence of a strong central government, tribal divisions and competition for political influence have worsened security conditions. Additionally, Libya has suffered from international interventions that further contributed to the internal security decline, as some international powers supported certain local factions or armed groups, exacerbating internal divisions and increasing state fragility.

Through the Frankfurt philosophy, these divisions can be understood as reflections of the structural problems left by the previous regime; the Frankfurt School posits that social and political inequalities deepen conflicts and lead to a fragile internal security situation. The Frankfurt analysis focuses on the role of power and hegemony in reshaping society. Therefore, the Frankfurt critique suggests that security in Libya will not be built unless addressing the social and economic dimensions that perpetuate divisions and establishing social justice to enhance internal cohesion.

Here, Frankfurt solutions focus on rebuilding the social fabric through political and social justice. Security policies must be directed towards building institutions capable of overcoming tribal and political divisions by enhancing national unity and instilling democratic values that guarantee peaceful coexistence among different groups. Additionally, international interventions should prioritize supporting national dialogue rather than reinforcing identities that further tear society apart.

3. Tunisia: Developmental Gaps Between Interior and Coastal Regions and Their Impact on Social and Economic Security

In Tunisia, there remains significant developmental disparity between inland and coastal regions. Coastal areas are marked by advanced infrastructure and greater economic opportunities, while inland regions suffer from economic marginalization, lack of basic services, and limited educational and employment opportunities. This disparity has led to a widespread sense of social frustration in inland regions, contributing to the emergence of protest movements, the most notable of which was the protests in 2010, which triggered the Tunisian revolution.

Addressing these developmental gaps from the perspective of the Frankfurt School requires a critical vision that transcends traditional political dimensions of security. Frankfurt philosophers view social injustice as one of the root causes threatening internal security. Thus, the analysis indicates that social and economic security cannot be achieved without comprehensive developmental reforms aimed at reducing gaps between different regions.

In this context, the Frankfurt School suggests adopting just developmental policies focusing on reducing economic disparities between coastal and inland regions. By integrating developmental justice as one of the core components of comprehensive security, a more stable and cohesive society can be built. This requires investments in education, healthcare, infrastructure, as well as enhancing decentralization in the management of government resources to ensure equal benefits for all regions.

The six models presented illustrate how the critical Frankfurt School can contribute to reshaping the concept of comprehensive security by addressing security challenges in diverse contexts, be they economic, cultural, or environmental; security should not be limited to military or political aspects but must address the social and economic causes threatening stability. The adoption of just policies attentive to social justice and balanced resource distribution is essential to building sustainable and comprehensive security in these contexts. Implementing these visions in the various states represents an important step toward a deeper understanding of security, especially in facing the contemporary transformations many countries are experiencing on both global and regional levels.

Conclusion

This study concludes that the Frankfurt School has fundamentally transformed the concept of international security by offering a critical framework that surpasses the traditional state and military power perspective to include social, economic, and cultural dimensions. This critical approach has enabled a deeper understanding of contemporary security challenges, especially in light of the geopolitical and economic transformations currently being witnessed worldwide.

The research has highlighted that the Frankfurt School has contributed to reshaping the security concept to become more inclusive and flexible by analyzing the structural factors that contribute to security threats, such as economic disparities, ethnic conflicts, and environmental changes. Furthermore, through examples from various countries, it has become clear that applying critical security perspectives allows states to address their security issues by focusing on root causes rather than merely relying on traditional security solutions.

The study also emphasizes the importance of integrating critical analysis into national security policies, as results have shown that security cannot be achieved solely through military measures but rather through a holistic approach that includes economic development, social justice, and cultural dialogue. The practical models evidenced that addressing economic and social gaps, enhancing dialogue among community components, and handling environmental challenges are essential steps toward achieving sustainable security.

On the other hand, the study pointed out some challenges facing the application of the Frankfurt School’s approach, as the focus on structural and social factors may make this perspective less effective in confronting urgent security threats such as terrorism and cybersecurity. Nevertheless, adopting a critical perspective can provide long-term solutions capable of addressing the root causes of such threats.

In light of these findings, reconsidering international security policies through the lens of the Frankfurt School represents an urgent necessity to ensure a more effective and comprehensive response to contemporary security challenges. Thus, the research recommends strengthening critical thinking in security policies, integrating economic and social factors into security strategies, and broadening the scope of community and cultural dialogue to ensure the sustainability of security solutions.

In conclusion, the study highlights the importance of the Frankfurt School as a theoretical framework through which a critical understanding of international security can be fostered in a rapidly changing world, enabling the development of more sustainable and just policies that promote the stability of states and societies in the long term.

References

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