A Theoretical Approach to the Development of the Concept of Modern Diplomacy

It is said that diplomacy is a tool for the foreign policy of states, especially in times of peace, with its primary goal being to reconcile conflicts between countries and to establish means of communication.

This process of representation and negotiation leads us to explore some key themes that will enable us to understand the linguistic and terminological implications of the concept of diplomacy, alongside some intersecting concepts, and to track the evolution of this concept across successive historical eras, starting from ancient times, whether in the civilizations of the Mesopotamian Valley and the subsequent states, the Nile basin referring to Pharaonic Egypt, or in other parts of the ancient world such as the realms of Chinese and Indian cultures, continuing through the Greek, Roman, Islamic, and Byzantine eras up to the modern age.

Linguistic Significance of the Concept of Diplomacy:

1. In ancient Greece, the term “diplomacy” (Diplomacy / Diplomatie) referred to folded documents that granted certain privileges to their holders.
2. In Roman times, it pertained to folded documents like passports and passes that allowed the bearer the right to travel through the empire on behalf of the Senate or the Emperor, thus placing them under special care and attention.
3. The meaning of the term (diploma) expanded to include official papers and documents containing texts and agreements and treaties concluded by the empire with foreign tribes and communities.
4. As the archived records of the Roman Empire increased, the term Diplomacy was used through the Middle Ages to refer to the study, organization, and preservation of these documents, leading to the establishment of a diplomatic affairs role focused on archiving and organizing these records.
5. Throughout the 15th century, the term diplomacy remained linked to international relations until the 18th century when it became associated with the study of archives, treaties, and knowledge of the history of relations between countries. From then on, the concept of diplomacy came to signify the direction and management of relations.

The term “diplomacy” transitioned from Greek to Latin and then to European languages and into Arabic.

1. Diplomacy in Latin:
   • The first meaning refers to an official certificate or document that contains the envoy’s title and mission, along with endorsements from the ruler for their presentation and favorable reception or transit between different regions. These certificates were typically pieces of iron (called diplomas).
   • The second meaning used by the Romans referred to the character of the envoy or ambassador, implying a duplicitous or treacherous person.
2. Diplomacy in French: Refers to an envoy or commissioner, meaning a person sent on a mission (the term “ambassador” derives from “ministrant,” meaning servant, and is a title granted only to royal representatives).
3. It’s noted that the Spaniards were the first to use the term “embassy” after it was carried over from ecclesiastical expressions meaning servant or delegation.

Terminological Implications of the Concept of Diplomacy:

Several definitions exist for the concept of diplomacy:

• Some have defined diplomacy as the science of international relations, with Charles Calvo describing it as “the science of relations among various states based on their mutual interests and the principles of international law and treaty provisions.”
• Diplomacy has also been linked to diplomatic law:
  • Pradier-Fodéré (1900) stated that diplomatic law is that branch of international law that specifically deals with coordinating the external relations of states, portraying it as “the art of representing the government and the country’s interests to governments and foreign nations and ensuring that the rights, interests, and dignity of the nation abroad are not violated, managing international affairs, and overseeing political negotiations.”
  • Genet (1931) described diplomatic law as a branch of public law that is particularly concerned with the practice and codification of states’ external relations, forms of representation abroad, and managing international affairs as well as ways of conducting negotiations.
• Diplomacy has also been linked to diplomatic history: Dr. Abou Haif described it as the study of the history of diplomacy and its various phases in the context of human relations and the fates of peoples and the motives for war through negotiations and treaties, allowing it to reorganize the society in which it exists.
• There are those who do not consider diplomacy a distinct science but rather a branch of public law, as expressed by Genet, who defined it as “a branch of public law that specifically concerns the direction and organization of states’ external relations, representing those states abroad, and managing international matters and negotiations.”
• Furthermore, it has been defined in ancient India as “the ability to provoke war and confirm peace between states.”
• The term “diplomacy” appears in the Oxford English Dictionary as “the conduct of international relations through negotiation, the means by which consuls and ambassadors organize and manage these relations; it is a craft or art of the statesman. The negotiations involved in concluding international treaties are diplomatic procedures.”
• Negotiation plays a significant role in the activities of diplomacy to the extent that diplomatic activity is often narrowly defined as “the art of managing negotiations and concluding treaties between states.”
• The French (Rivet, 1866) viewed diplomacy as “the science and art of representing the state and negotiating.”
• Hameed Sultan defined it as “the art and science of managing the state’s external affairs, with diplomatic relations being the living representation of international communications.”
• British diplomat (Ernest Satow) defined it as “the use of intelligence and tact in managing official relations between a government and independent states.”
• Diplomat Harold Nicolson defined it as “the management of international relations through negotiations,” emphasizing the importance of distinguishing decision-makers from the role of diplomatic personnel.
• Henry Kissinger defined it as “the adaptation of differences through negotiation.”
• The definition attributed to Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan states: “If there were a hair between me and the people, I would not cut it. If they loosened it, I would tighten it, and if they tightened it, I would loosen it.”
• Dr. Adnan Al-Bakkari stated that diplomacy is a political process used by a state to implement its foreign policy in dealing with other states and international entities, managing its formal relations within the international system.
• Mamoun Al-Hamwi defined diplomacy as an operational practice for managing the external affairs of the state, both a science and an art requiring deep study of existing inter-state relations, mutual interests, and the context of their histories and treaties with international documents, both past and present; it is an art because it relies on special talents, including tact, intuition, and keen observation.
• As per Hassan Saab, diplomacy is “a science, an art, a law, a history, an institution, and a profession”:
  • It is a science: because it encompasses rules and established principles governing its practice and how it applies in relations between states.
  • It is an art: as it incorporates methods of tact, diplomacy, and artistic nuances.
  • It is a law: since its application requires talent, ability, and art of persuasion by those assigned to practice and apply it.
  • It is a history: because its principles and practices have been standardized among various international bodies and entities under international law and thus become an integral part of international public law.
  • It is an institution: as it is practiced through specialized and independent agencies within one state context.
  • It is a profession: as those who practice it today dedicate their full efforts to fulfill their roles just like any specialized and independent political or administrative activity.

Diplomacy plays a crucial role in international relations, addressing all matters that concern various states. It facilitates reconciling conflicting interests and differing viewpoints, making it easier to solve problems, resolve disputes, and foster understanding and cooperation among nations.

Diplomacy is connected to both material and human factors. It is a material science because it presupposes that its practitioners fully comprehend international relations and diplomacy, as well as the nature of legal and political relations between states. The human factor manifests in the diplomat’s ability to influence and persuade others, requiring a measure of intelligence, skills, and tact, as well as knowledge of negotiation principles and the language used in interactions.

Most of the definitions mentioned above encompass two essential factors:

The first: is that diplomacy is practiced at the level of international relations: since states cannot exist in isolation from each other, they are compelled by the evolution and complexity of their interests to engage with others and exchange benefits in service of their people’s interests. This illustrates that diplomacy encompasses the idea of external relations, thus diplomacy can only be practiced between entities recognized under international law, namely states and international organizations.

The second: is that diplomacy includes the idea of negotiation: the foreign policy objectives of states are not uniform; often, they contradict to the point of opposition. Given this, states must recognize each other and find themselves obliged to reconcile those conflicting objectives through negotiation. While diplomacy aims to achieve political goals, it embodies the search for agreement. In other words, diplomacy is delineated from foreign policy, where the former is the selection of objectives and foundational lines followed by a state concerning another state or states, while diplomacy is the implementation of that policy.

Other Related Concepts of Diplomacy:

Diplomacy fundamentally is the management of official relations between states; it relies on communications, with some scholars emphasizing negotiations as a means to organize relations between states, while others consider it an art and science studied in managing and organizing those relations, exchanging missions, and resolving disputes through ambassadors and envoys. The term diplomacy is also used to indicate other related concepts, including:

1. The term “diplomacy” can denote a specific political method or approach at a certain time concerning a state’s relations with other states and its foreign policy (e.g., Algerian diplomacy, Russian diplomacy).
2. The term is used to describe the style and approach managing external communications, such as “secret diplomacy,” “conference diplomacy,” and “shuttle diplomacy” due to excessive mobility.
3. The term “diplomacy” can also refer to the profession itself, where there can sometimes be confusion between the tasks assigned to the diplomatic apparatus and the diplomatic roles themselves, leading to the term “diplomacy” being used for the apparatus and its members (the diplomatic corps).
4. The term represents negotiations and follows through ceremonial protocols; for instance, stating that a particular international dilemma lacks a diplomatic solution translates to resolving disputes through peaceful means, i.e., via negotiations and communications rather than resorting to violence.
5. The term diplomacy is also used as a synonym for tact, shrewdness, and skill in behavior, applied to people who possess special skills in their social relationships to achieve their desires through cleverness and intelligence, or deceitful means; such a person is described as diplomatic, while the term can also refer to someone who can resolve issues amicably and satisfactorily.
6. Diplomacy might also be used to indicate international trends toward a particular stance or condition, for instance, “Algerian diplomacy regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict” or towards Iraqi intervention in Kuwait or regarding the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
7. It is employed broadly when referencing the diplomatic history of a particular state or a specific time period to denote the historical sequence of official relations between countries, such as “the diplomatic history of France.”
8. Diplomacy may be used narrowly to describe specific terms like “diplomatic correspondence” and “diplomatic immunities and privileges.”
9. Diplomacy is sometimes wrongly used synonymously with strategy; the term has also been associated with the perspective that it is a form of espionage exercised by the apparatus in the host state.

The Historical Evolution of Diplomacy:

The historical evolution of diplomacy can be divided into two phases:

Phase One: This encompasses ancient times to the Middle Ages until the 15th century, where diplomatic representation was incidental. The diplomatic system (at the level of ambassadors) has been present in humanity since its inception but was governed by religious laws and customary practices. In contrast to the current situation, it now relies on binding legal rules.

Phase Two: This begins in the 15th century and extends to the present, where diplomatic representation has become characterized by permanence and continuity.

Diplomacy in Ancient Times: Ancient peoples established international relations, characterized predominantly by religious contexts. While Western studies demonstrate the emergence and evolution of diplomacy in ancient European societies through abstract conclusions, archaeological investigations conducted throughout Iraq (Mesopotamia), Egypt (the Nile Valley), and the Arabian Peninsula have substantiated the fact of diplomatic evolution within the peoples inhabiting those areas of the ancient world.

• Historians have discovered advanced diplomatic relations dating back to 3000 BCE, reflecting the inclinations of the peoples of these areas to resolve disputes through diplomatic means.
• The Akkadian language was the diplomatic language of the states of that world, and evidence shows the existence of diplomatic correspondence, such as that between the Babylonian state in Iraq and the Pharaohs of Egypt and the Hittites in Anatolia, aiming for neutrality from international disputes and distancing from military alliances. An example includes diplomatic notes sent by King Burnaburiaš II (1775 – 1347 BCE) to Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten).
• There were also international relations in ancient times governed by certain rules, such as peace treaties, including one of alliance, cooperation, and the extradition of political criminals executed in the 13th century BCE (circa 1292 BCE) between “Ramses II,” Pharaoh of Egypt, and “Hattusili,” King of the Hittites, known as the “Pearl Treaty,” described by historians as the first international treaty of its kind in human history.
• Historian Von Salak noted 16 important treaties concluded in the ancient East between the dominant major powers at that time, including Babylon, Egypt, the Hittite Kingdom, Syria, Asia Minor, and Cyprus, occurring during the period from the 15th to the 19th century BCE.

Furthermore, ancient civilizations in China and India exhibited early diplomatic practices, as ancient Chinese records refer to specific texts governing the appointment and reception of foreign emissaries, their tasks, and duties. Chinese philosophers posited remarkable theories regarding international organization and relations; for instance, Confucius believed in a common law for the whole world, building upon this a theory of social and international relations and asserting the need for a common body to manage international relations by selecting representatives based on virtue and competence. Philosopher Laozi advocated for diminishing wars and examined potential international sanctions on offenders.

Generally, ancient Chinese followed a policy of isolation manifested in constructing the Great Wall of China, which extended 2,150 miles; this isolationist policy internally influenced their domestic politics. For example, the Ming dynasty housed the “Forbidden City,” which ordinary people were not permitted to enter.

With the Indians’ aggressive stance toward foreigners, the Manu Law around 1000 BCE allowed for the expansion of the kingdom through peaceful means or even force through the function of espionage diplomatic missions, focused on gathering information about other peoples and forming alliances to enhance Indian military strength at the expense of other states. Manu’s laws in diplomatic context state that anyone who raises their hand against an envoy faces destruction and extermination, as the envoy is protected by divine sanction.

Diplomacy in Greece: The communication between Greek city-states was distinguished by their perception of other nations as worthless entities, exemplified by the heralds, appointed messengers tasked with representing the city-state and managing the royal court and maintaining order at gatherings.

As the interests of Greek city-states diversified, the role of heralds evolved, necessitating certain attributes in envoys such as eloquence and cunning, leading to failures in the diplomatic system due to reliance on deceitfulness, distracting envoys from the interests of the cities they represented.

However, the Greeks are credited with founding the seeds of diplomatic ideas and traditions, notably establishing the principle of diplomatic immunity, setting rules for the inviolability of diplomatic envoys, as well as protocols for the asylum of political refugees in tombs and churches that served as temporary embassies in such situations.

The Greeks also resorted to the method of convening regional conferences in conflict situations, called Amphictyonic conferences, aimed at achieving general principles for the preservation of common interests, binding members to respect and implement them.

The evolution of international trade at this time contributed to the formation of several bilateral agreements protecting the people and properties of foreign merchants. The Greeks innovated the institution of proxenia, considered by some to be the basis of modern consular protection, whereby a city notable would protect foreigners and their property. They also pioneered arbitration for resolving disputes between Greek cities, avoiding war and conflict. Examples include arbitration between Athens and Mytilene and between Athens and Megara. Given the success of arbitration in relations, the Greek Empire adopted this method for resolving disputes with its colonies in Asia, Italy, and Africa while occasionally resorting to force. A total of 110 arbitration cases were recorded over five centuries, ending with the Macedonian invasion in the mid-4th century BCE.

The Greeks made efforts to transmit these principles to other cities and peoples to assure strong relations, which later formed the initial nucleus of diplomatic law.

Diplomacy in Rome: For the Romans, warfare was a legitimate means of organizing relations with other states, as Roman thought was based on the premise that power creates and protects rights. This approach diminished Rome’s role in establishing and developing international law principles, especially those governing diplomatic conduct; nonetheless, they left lasting theoretical contributions to diplomacy by creating the role of trained archivists focused on studying documents and international practices and establishing a specialized office for managing foreign affairs and resolving disputes regarding diplomatic immunities.

The concept of diplomacy evolved into the definition of carefully folded metal plates (diplomas) granted to their holders as licenses for travel on the empire’s roads for envoys assigned with missions; these documents also bore the endorsement of the Senate. The concept further expanded to include official documents, records, and archives.

Despite this, Rome undeniably contributed to the evolution of international law while dominating the ancient world. Rome was the first “state” to set a collection of internal rules governing relations with other states. For instance, there was Roman law for peace and war (Jus Fetial), which had a religious character, as its application and interpretation were left to the priests (Fetiales) who also acted as Rome’s ambassadors, enjoying personal immunity in their capacity. They were tasked with determining breaches of any foreign nation’s obligations toward Rome, thus granting them the right to declare “just” war following specific ceremonial rites.

International relations were established between Rome and the outside world. Friendships known as Amicitia, hospitality (Hospitium), and alliances (Foedus) often included provisions for arbitration for conflict resolution. The Roman Empire also exchanged ambassadors with other kingdoms and recognized diplomatic immunity for envoys sent to them.

Rome established a comprehensive set of legal principles governing relationships between Roman citizens and foreigners whose states concluded treaties of friendship with Rome. This legal framework, known as the law of nations (Jus gentium), did not represent international law per se but was a Roman-specific law governing transactions among foreigners or between them and Roman citizens. In other words, it consisted of internal legal codes created by Rome in light of thriving trade relations with other peoples, as the “eternal city” attracted vast groups of foreigners to become the “capital of the world.”

These laws governed the activities of foreigners in Rome and had no relation to state activities. However, the role played by the law of nations on a global scale cannot be denied, as it is grounded in the essential idea of the necessity of a common law for humanity, establishing that foreigners have certain fundamental rights protected by the local laws of the host state (e.g., the right to family, financial liability, commercial rights).

Moreover, the Senate had the right to receive foreign ambassadors and communicate with them to discuss shared issues; despite the Romans’ modest contribution to diplomatic work, they did enhance the principles of international law. They were concerned with civil law (jus civil), which applied solely to Romans, the law of nations (jus gentium), previously mentioned, and natural law (jus natural), which encompassed all humanity.

Diplomacy in the Middle Ages:

Islamic Diplomacy: Tracing the historical development of ancient diplomacy reveals evidence of a concept dealing with diplomatic negotiation in order to conclude treaties and international agreements in the Arab states before Islam. Arabs contributed to the development of diplomatic relations in Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, looking towards neighboring states, given their location among multiple states.

Before Islam, Arab civilization coexisted with other advanced political systems such as those of the Greeks, Romans, and Persians, necessitating amicable relations based on ancient customs. The Arabic language is one of the main elements underpinning the success of Arab diplomacy as it is a rich, expressive diplomatic language.

After the advent of Islam, Arab diplomacy witnessed significant evolution, with the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) adopting diplomacy as a primary means to propagate the Islamic faith, sending messengers and caring for foreign envoys. This reflects the comprehensive nature of the Islamic call, demonstrating Islam as a religion more than a state, as expressed in the Quran: “O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you.”

This verse embodies a profound invitation for fostering relationships among peoples with different languages and ancestries. Observing the Islamic diplomatic work system reveals two phases: the first focused on covert operations, and the second on public diplomacy, wherein during the early messenger era, the Prophet had secret representatives in the regions to which they were dispatched to provide him with intelligence.

Following this stage was the phase characterized by open diplomacy involving messengers carrying letters to kings and princes worldwide, inviting them to Islam as a fulfillment of Allah’s command: “O Messenger, proclaim that which has been revealed to you from your Lord, and if you do not, you have not conveyed His message. And Allah will protect you from the people. Indeed, Allah does not guide the disbelieving people.” Exemplifying treaties signed by the Prophet with Quraysh, like the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and with various Arab tribes or Jews, represent wise political decisions that safeguard the rights of Muslims and protect them from adversarial plots.

Here, we should reflect on how the Prophet (PBUH) treated the envoys of his enemies and their letter carriers, as this treatment exemplifies a fair and just approach. Islam grants them the protection and security of their lives, along with a form of social immunity allowing them return to their homelands freely, without any potential detention in Muslim lands under claims of enmity. Examples of some of the letters sent by the Prophet to kings and rulers included:

During the Umayyad period, the Islamic capital, Damascus, neared Constantinople, leading to a mutual watchfulness despite reciprocal recognition and respect, with diplomacy serving as an alternative to warfare. According to historical narratives, Caliph Abdul Malik bin Marwan dispatched al-Shabi, a tabii, as envoy to Emperor Justinian II in the 70th year of hijra to resolve some disputes and fortify relations between the two parties.

The emperor commended in his correspondence with the caliph the expertise, skill, and persuasive eloquence of al-Shabi and his success in managing discussions and arriving at mutually agreeable solutions. It can be concluded that the Abbasid era marked the golden age of Islamic diplomacy, given the vastness of its territory; it ensured the careful selection of ambassadors and the quality of representation.

Islamic diplomacy continued to play its human and ethical role in this era, notably sending Caliph Harun al-Rashid a delegation of emissaries bearing numerous gifts and Islamic scientific innovations – including a precise mechanical clock – to Charlemagne, the Frankish king, who expressed amazement alongside his court regarding those valuable gifts and the milestones achieved by Muslims at the time.

Additionally, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil sent Nasr bin Al-Azhar as an envoy to the Byzantine Emperor Michael to discuss the topic of prisoner exchanges and the acceptance of ransoms among Muslims and the Byzantine state, with this envoy succeeding in his mission and ransom for 2,300 Muslim captives held in Byzantium. In summary, it appears that diplomatic representation even until the Abbasid era was merely temporary, as envoys were comparable to extraordinary ambassadors and plenipotentiaries sent to complete a defined mission ending once their tasks were fulfilled. The contributions of Arab-Islamic diplomacy in establishing diplomatic traditions can be summarized as follows:

The envoy was required to possess wisdom, charisma, courage, patience, and high culture, along with cleanliness and good appearance.

Honoring and welcoming the foreign envoy.

The crafting of diplomatic correspondence by a specialized body linked to a specific office known as the “Office of Messages.”

Islamic diplomacy emphasized the principle of immunity by confirming security for messengers.

The Arab-Islamic diplomacy introduced a new function to the embassy (especially during the Abbasid era) as the cultural attaché.

The diplomatic activity during this period emphasized the linkage between ethics and politics, instilling virtue and morals, correlating them with public and private conduct.

Byzantine Diplomacy: With the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century CE, the emergence of the Byzantine Empire (the Eastern Roman Empire) headquartered in Constantinople alongside the Franks (the Western Roman Empire) in Rome faced challenges from the Islamic state in the East and the Franks in the West. Given their military weakness, the Byzantines were compelled to engage in negotiation and focused on diplomatic relations, working to solidify friendships for leverage and resolve disputes with rival states through peaceful means via dialogue and negotiations, eschewing coercive measures for settling outstanding issues or conflicts. In light of their diplomatic strategy, Byzantine emperors directed their efforts towards three main areas:

• Weakening barbarian factions by sowing inter-tribal discord or sometimes fostering rivalry.
• Gaining favor among neighboring tribes and peoples, purchasing their loyalty through various means, including financial incentives.
• Promoting Christian faith.

Consequently, the Byzantines established a permanent embassy system and added to the envoy’s duties the tasks of collecting, studying, analyzing intelligence, monitoring enemy behaviors, and reporting while mastering negotiation strategies. The concept of the observing diplomat emerged under their reign, marking a significant transition in the field of diplomatic activity that began to rely on professional diplomats. The Byzantines also emphasized diplomatic espionage in light of the aforementioned conditions.

Diplomacy in the Modern Era:

Diplomacy took on new dimensions in the modern age, emerging as a permanent apparatus to represent political interests abroad after several conditions were met:

• The shift in the balance of power from traditional empires to the rise of new nation-states emerging in the mid-15th century (such as England, France, Spain, and Italy) and the concurrent struggles for control over the world.
• The rise of the Islamic Empire in the East (the Ottoman Empire) following the conquest of Constantinople, subsequently threatening the power of the European Christian states, especially following the dissolution of the Eastern Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire).
• The competitive race for colonial domination over Africa and North America, aimed at exploiting their resources and riches, not to mention their strategic locations.
• The trend toward establishing international coalitions to confront common threats, necessitating the establishment of permanent missions aimed at coordinating efforts and harmonizing positions on specific issues and stances.
• The scientific and artistic renaissance that swept the world, fostering permanent cooperation among these states for collective benefits.

The first instance of permanent diplomatic representation materialized notably in Italy, particularly in Venice, then the practice of sending permanent ambassadors unfolded (the Duke of Milan sending an ambassador to Genoa in 1455). The system of diplomatic missions then spread to other European states, such as France, which classified diplomatic envoys into four categories: extraordinary ambassadors, ordinary ambassadors, envoys, and ministers resident. France notably pioneered the rule of requiring prior approval from the host country for candidates to diplomatic positions before their formal appointment.

Prior to this, the first contemporary diplomatic regulations emerged at the Vienna Conference on International Relations in 1815, establishing the first global agreement setting rules for the hierarchy of diplomacy and precedence among representatives, playing a significant role in forming the diplomatic landscape of the 19th and 20th centuries. This culminated in the second Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1961 under the auspices of the United Nations, leading to what is known as diplomatic law in 1951.

As the world entered the 20th century, diplomacy was influenced by various factors, including:

• The growth of the spirit of mutual interests among nations further aggravated by advancements in communications and transportation, increasing interactions between states.
• Developments in printing followed by journalism and public opinion, contributing to shaping domestic and foreign policies, allowing for greater transparency and public engagement in diplomatic activities.
• Progress in military technology, particularly nuclear weapons and space technologies.
• The emergence of open diplomacy.
• The rise of summit diplomacy.
• The advent of regional international organizations’ diplomacy.
• The emergence of diplomacy in political and technical conferences.
• The dispatch of roaming ambassadors.
• The appointment of personal representatives of state presidents.
• The relative reduction of ambassadors’ authorities.
• Evolving working conditions in diplomacy.
• The shift towards the elimination of commissions, replacing them with embassies.
• Women’s participation in diplomatic work.

References

• “Diplomacy” by Henry Kissinger

• “The Practice of Diplomacy: Its Evolution, Theory, and Administration” by Keith Hamilton and Richard Langhorne

• “The Evolution of Diplomatic Method” by Harold Nicolson

• “Modern Diplomacy” by R. P. Barston

• “The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy” edited by Andrew F. Cooper, Jorge Heine, and Ramesh Thakur

• “Diplomacy and International Law in Globalized Relations” by Bertrand Badie and Dirk Berg-Schlosser

• “Global Diplomacy: Theories, Types, and Models” by Alison R. Holmes

• “International Diplomacy and the Olympic Movement: The New Mediators” by Aaron Beacom

• “The Transformation of Diplomacy: How to Save the World?” by Jovan Kurbalija

• “Strategic Diplomacy: The Political Underpinnings of Global Economic Governance” by Ralf Emmers

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